Virtue Ethics PDF 1AY2425 GEC8

1 CHAPTER 5 2 KNOWLEDGE AND VIRTUOUS LIFE 3 "Educating the mind without educating the heart is no education at all." 4 (Nicomachean Ethics, Book II, Chapter 1) 5 Virtue ethics...

1 CHAPTER 5 2 KNOWLEDGE AND VIRTUOUS LIFE 3 "Educating the mind without educating the heart is no education at all." 4 (Nicomachean Ethics, Book II, Chapter 1) 5 Virtue ethics is a branch of moral philosophy that emphasizes the role of character and 6 virtue in moral reasoning. Virtue ethics is one of the oldest forms of ethical theory has a rich 7 history, rooted in ancient Greek philosophy, evolving through Christian and medieval thought, 8 and experiencing a revival in the 20th and 21st centuries. By focusing on the development of 9 moral character and virtues, virtue ethics continues to offer a compelling alternative to rule- 10 based moral theories like utilitarianism and deontology. 11 12 LEARNING OBJECTIVES 13 By the end of this chapter, learners must be able to: 14 1. Know the historical background of virtue ethics; 15 2. Understand the main teachings of the virtue ethics of the classical Greek era; 16 3. Distinguish the teachings of Socrates, Aristotle and Plato; 17 4. Know the virtue ethics of the Hellenistic era; 18 5. Explain the main teachings of the medieval up to the modern period; 19 6. Be able to apply the philosophy in real life context. 20 HISTORICAL TIMELINE OF VIRTUE ETHICS 21 Presented below is a historical timeline of virtue ethics, highlighting key events, works, 22 and philosophers who contributed to its development: 23 24 Ancient Greek Philosophy (4th Century BCE) 25 26 1. Socrates (469–399 BCE): Although Socrates did not write any philosophical texts, his ideas 27 were recorded by his student, Plato. Socrates is often credited with laying the groundwork for 28 virtue ethics by emphasizing the importance of moral character and virtue over strict adherence 29 to rules or consequences. 30 2. Plato (c. 427–347 BCE): Plato's works, including "The Republic" (c. 380 BCE), discuss the 31 idea of justice and the role of the philosopher-king, who embodies wisdom and virtue. Plato 32 argued that virtues such as wisdom, courage, temperance, and justice are essential to living a 33 good life. 34 3. Aristotle (384–322 BCE): Aristotle's "Nicomachean Ethics" (c. 350 BCE) is one of the most 35 significant works in virtue ethics. He introduced the concept of the "Golden Mean," which 36 suggests that virtue lies between two extremes (e.g., courage between recklessness and 1AY2425 GEC8 Chapter 5. Knowledge and Virtuous Life. Beltran (2024) 1  1 cowardice). Aristotle emphasized the importance of developing virtuous habits through 2 practice. 3 4 5 Hellenistic Philosophy (3rd Century BCE – 1st Century BCE) 6 4. The Stoics: Philosophers such as Zeno of Citium (c. 334–262 BCE) and later Roman Stoics 7 like Seneca (c. 4 BCE – 65 CE), Epictetus (c. 55–135 CE), and Marcus Aurelius (121–180 CE) 8 also contributed to virtue ethics. They believed that living in accordance with nature and 9 reason, and cultivating virtues like wisdom, courage, and self-control, were key to achieving a 10 good life. 11 5.Epicurus (341–270 BCE): Although more commonly associated with hedonism, Epicurus also 12 emphasized the importance of virtuous living. His philosophy, while different from the more 13 self-restraint-focused Stoicism, argued that virtues like prudence and justice were essential to 14 attaining happiness and avoiding pain. 15 16 Medieval Philosophy (4th – 13th Century CE) 17 6. Christian Virtue Ethics: Early Christian thinkers like St. Augustine of Hippo (354–430 CE) 18 integrated Greek philosophical ideas with Christian doctrine. Augustine’s works, such as 19 "Confessions" (c. 400 CE), emphasized virtues like faith, hope, and charity. 20 7. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274): In the "Summa Theologica" (1265–1274), Aquinas 21 synthesized Aristotelian ethics with Christian theology. He identified four cardinal virtues 22 (prudence, justice, fortitude, and temperance) and three theological virtues (faith, hope, and 23 charity), arguing that these virtues are necessary for a good and moral life. 24 25 Renaissance and Early Modern Philosophy (14th – 18th Century CE) 26 8. Renaissance Humanism: Thinkers like Erasmus of Rotterdam (1466–1536) revived interest 27 in classical texts and the virtues emphasized by Greek and Roman philosophers. The humanists 28 focused on the development of moral character and the importance of education in cultivating 29 virtue. 30 9. David Hume (1711–1776): In his "A Treatise of Human Nature" (1739–1740) and "An 31 Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals" (1751), Hume argued that moral virtue is rooted 32 in human emotions and that virtuous behavior arises from feelings of benevolence and 33 sympathy. 34 35 20th Century Revival 36 10. G.E.M. Anscombe (1919–2001): In her seminal paper "Modern Moral Philosophy" (1958), 37 Anscombe criticized contemporary moral theories like utilitarianism and deontology for their 38 neglect of moral character. She called for a return to Aristotelian ethics, which set the stage for 39 a renewed interest in virtue ethics. 40 11. Philippa Foot (1920–2010): Foot's works, including "Virtues and Vices" (1978), further 41 developed the ideas of virtue ethics. She argued that virtues are essential to human flourishing 42 and that moral judgment should be grounded in the character of the moral agent. 43 12. Alasdair MacIntyre (1929–present): MacIntyre's book "After Virtue" (1981) is one of the 44 most influential works in modern virtue ethics. He critiques the fragmentation of moral 45 language and argues for a return to an Aristotelian conception of virtue, embedded in social 46 practices and traditions. 47 48 1AY2425 GEC8 Chapter 5. Knowledge and Virtuous Life. Beltran (2024) 2  1 Contemporary Developments (21st Century) 2 13. Martha Nussbaum (1947–present): Nussbaum has expanded on Aristotle’s virtue ethics, 3 applying it to modern issues such as justice and human rights. Her works, like "Frontiers of 4 Justice" (2006), incorporate virtue ethics into broader philosophical discussions about the 5 capabilities necessary for a just society. 6 7 14. Rosalind Hursthouse (1943–present): In "On Virtue Ethics" (1999), Hursthouse presents a 8 contemporary defense of virtue ethics, arguing that virtues are essential for living a fulfilling 9 life and navigating moral dilemmas. 10 11 Virtue of the Classical Civilization (4th Century BCE) 12 13 Presented in the mindmap below are the main concepts and principles of virtue ethics: 14 15 16 Socrates 17 18 Socrates, one of the most influential figures in Western philosophy, made significant 19 contributions to ethical theory. His approach laid the groundwork for much of subsequent 20 ethical thinking and established many of the questions and methods that would guide 21 philosophers for centuries. Here are the key contributions of Socrates to ethical theory: 22 1AY2425 GEC8 Chapter 5. Knowledge and Virtuous Life. Beltran (2024) 3  1 Socrates’ contributions to ethical theory are foundational and far-reaching. His emphasis 2 on virtue, the role of reason in ethics, the pursuit of moral knowledge, and the importance of 3 self-examination have shaped the field of ethics for millennia. Through the Socratic Method, he 4 demonstrated the power of dialogue and questioning in the pursuit of truth. Socrates' ideas laid 5 the groundwork for his student Plato and many other philosophers who followed, making him 6 a central figure in the history of ethical thought. 7 8 1. Emphasis on Virtue and Moral Knowledge 9 - Socrates believed that the key to a good life was the cultivation of virtue (arete). He argued 10 that virtues like justice, courage, and piety were central to a well-lived life. 11 - He famously claimed that "knowledge is virtue," suggesting that true knowledge leads to 12 right action. According to Socrates, if a person truly understands what is good, they will 13 naturally do what is good. Thus, moral failure is a result of ignorance, not malice. 14 15 2. The Socratic Method 16 Socrates is best known for his method of inquiry, often called the *Socratic Method* or 17 elenchus. This method involves asking a series of probing questions to stimulate critical 18 thinking and to illuminate ideas. Through dialogue, Socrates would question people's beliefs, 19 often revealing contradictions in their thinking. This process aimed to strip away false beliefs 20 and lead the interlocutor to a clearer understanding of virtue and the good life. The Socratic 21 Method encourages individuals to question assumptions, reflect on their own beliefs, and seek 22 deeper understanding, which remains a foundational approach in ethical inquiry. 23 24 3. Moral Objectivism 25 Socrates introduced the idea of moral objectivism, the belief that there are objective 26 truths about what is good and just, independent of individual opinions or societal norms. He 27 argued against the moral relativism of the Sophists, who claimed that moral beliefs are based on 28 convention and are relative to individuals or cultures. Instead, Socrates held that there are 29 universal moral truths that can be discovered through reason. 30 31 4. The Unity of Virtue 32 Socrates proposed the idea that all virtues are interconnected and that possessing one 33 virtue entails possessing them all. For example, to be truly just, one must also be wise, 34 courageous, and temperate. This unity of virtues suggests that moral character is a holistic 35 quality. A truly virtuous person cannot be selectively virtuous; they must cultivate all virtues 36 to live a morally good life. 37 38 5. The Role of the Philosopher 39 Socrates viewed the philosopher as a kind of moral guide or midwife, helping others to 40 give birth to true knowledge and understanding. He saw the philosopher's role as a gadfly, 41 challenging complacency and encouraging people to think critically about their lives and 42 values. This idea established the role of philosophy as an active, engaged practice concerned 43 with living a good life, rather than a detached academic pursuit. 44 45 6.The Importance of Self-Knowledge 46 Socrates famously declared, "The unexamined life is not worth living." He believed that 47 self-knowledge was essential for moral development. Understanding one's own nature, desires, 48 and motivations is crucial for making ethical decisions. By encouraging individuals to examine 1AY2425 GEC8 Chapter 5. Knowledge and Virtuous Life. Beltran (2024) 4  1 their own lives, Socrates highlighted the importance of introspection and self-awareness in 2 ethical living. 3 4 5 7. Moral Autonomy 6 Socrates emphasized the importance of individual moral responsibility and the need to 7 make ethical decisions based on reason rather than authority or tradition. This focus on moral 8 autonomy paved the way for later philosophical discussions about the importance of individual 9 conscience and moral integrity. His willingness to question authority, even at the cost of his 10 own life, demonstrated a commitment to moral principles over social or political expediency. 11 12 Plato 13 Plato, a student of Socrates, developed his own ethical theory that built upon and 14 diverged from Socratic ideas. Both philosophers placed a strong emphasis on virtue and the 15 pursuit of the good life, but Plato introduced new elements and perspectives that shaped his 16 distinct approach to ethics. Here’s an overview of Plato’s ethical theory and how it differs from 17 that of Socrates: 18 19 20 21 Plato’s Ethical Theory 1AY2425 GEC8 Chapter 5. Knowledge and Virtuous Life. Beltran (2024) 5  1 2 Plato built on Socratic ethics by adding metaphysical dimensions through the Theory of 3 Forms and developing a more structured view of the soul and virtues. While both philosophers 4 agreed on the centrality of virtue and knowledge to the good life, Plato’s ethical theory 5 introduced abstract and political elements, expanding the scope of ethical inquiry to encompass 6 both individual and societal well-being. 7 8 1. The Theory of Forms (Ideas) 9 Central to Plato's philosophy is the Theory of Forms, which posits that the physical 10 world is a shadow of a higher, non-physical reality. The Forms are perfect, eternal, and 11 unchanging concepts or ideals, such as Goodness, Justice, and Beauty. In ethics, the Form of 12 the Good is the highest and most important Form. For Plato, understanding the Form of the 13 Good is essential to living a moral life because it is the source of all other virtues and moral 14 truths. The Good itself is the ultimate object of knowledge, and it illuminates the nature of all 15 other virtues. 16 17 2. The Tripartite Soul 18 Plato introduced the concept of the tripartite soul in his work *The Republic*. He 19 divided the soul into three parts: the rational, the spirited, and the appetitive. 20 a. Rational part: Seeks truth and knowledge; associated with wisdom. 21 b. Spirited part: Associated with emotions and courage; seeks honor. 22 c. Appetitive part: Associated with bodily desires and pleasures; seeks material satisfaction. 23 24 Ethical behavior arises when these three parts are in harmony, with the rational part 25 governing the soul. This harmony is achieved through the cultivation of the four cardinal 26 virtues: wisdom, courage, temperance, and justice. 27 28 3. The Role of Justice 29 For Plato, justice is a key virtue both in the individual and in society. Justice in the 30 individual is a state of inner harmony where each part of the soul performs its function under 31 the guidance of reason. In a just society, each class (rulers, warriors, and producers) performs 32 its appropriate role, mirroring the harmony of the soul. 33 34 4. The Philosopher-King 35 In The Republic, Plato argues that the ideal ruler is the philosopher-king, a wise and 36 virtuous individual who understands the Form of the Good and can therefore make just and 37 informed decisions for the welfare of the state. This idea underscores Plato's belief in the 38 importance of knowledge and wisdom in ethical leadership, contrasting with Socratic emphasis 39 on the role of individuals in their moral development. 40 41 5. Moral Education 42 Plato believed that people are not naturally virtuous but can become so through 43 education. Education helps individuals turn their souls toward the Forms, particularly the 44 Form of the Good, guiding them to live virtuous lives. This process involves philosophical 45 inquiry, contemplation, and the cultivation of reason, distinguishing it from mere opinion or 46 belief. 47 48 Differences Between Plato’s and Socrates’ Ethical Theories 1AY2425 GEC8 Chapter 5. Knowledge and Virtuous Life. Beltran (2024) 6  1 1. Knowledge and Virtue 2 Socrates held that knowledge is virtue, meaning that to know the good is to do the 3 good. Socratic ethics is closely tied to the idea that ethical knowledge is both necessary and 4 sufficient for virtuous action. Plato agreed with the idea that knowledge is crucial for virtue, 5 but he developed the idea further with the Theory of Forms. He emphasized the need to 6 understand the Form of the Good to achieve true knowledge and virtue, introducing a more 7 complex and abstract conception of knowledge. 8 9 2. The Nature of Virtue 10 Socrates viewed virtues as unified; knowing one virtue (like courage) meant knowing 11 them all, due to the unity of knowledge and virtue. While Plato distinguished between different 12 virtues tied to different parts of the soul. While he agreed that virtues are interconnected, he 13 developed a more nuanced view where different virtues correspond to different aspects of the 14 soul’s harmony. 15 16 3. The Role of the Philosopher 17 Socrates considered the philosopher as a gadfly, questioning and challenging people's 18 assumptions to lead them to greater moral clarity. He focused on the moral improvement of 19 individuals through dialogue and critical questioning. On the other hand, Plato elevated the 20 philosopher’s role to that of a ruler. His concept of the philosopher-king highlights the belief 21 that those who understand the Forms, particularly the Form of the Good, are best equipped to 22 govern society. This political dimension is less pronounced in Socratic thought. 23 24 4. The Concept of the Good 25 Socrates did not clearly define the Good in abstract terms, focusing instead on practical, 26 lived expressions of virtue and the importance of knowledge in achieving good behavior. 27 Plato developed the idea of the Good as an abstract, transcendent Form that is the ultimate 28 object of knowledge. For Plato, understanding the Good is crucial for achieving a just and 29 virtuous life, both individually and socially. 30 31 5. The Afterlife and Immortality of the Soul 32 Socrates suggested the soul’s immortality, his ethical focus was on living a virtuous life 33 here and now, guided by reason. Plato developed a more detailed account of the soul’s 34 immortality, including the belief in the soul's pre-existence and post-mortem destiny. His 35 ethical theory considers the soul’s eternal nature, influencing the need for moral education and 36 the pursuit of the Good. 37 38 Nicomachean Ethics 39 40 Aristotle's *Nicomachean Ethics* offers a comprehensive account of how one can 41 achieve a fulfilled and happy life. It emphasizes the development of virtue through rational 42 activity, the importance of moral and intellectual virtues, the role of friendships, and the pursuit 43 of a contemplative life. This work has had a profound influence on ethical thought throughout 44 history and continues to be a cornerstone of moral philosophy. 45 46 Aristotle’s ethics deal with character, virtues, good habits and happiness or well-being 47 (‘eudaimonia’). The name may have somehow come from Aristotle’s son, Nicomachus, who was 48 named after Aristotle’s father. The Nicomachean ethics are based on a teleological philosophy, 1AY2425 GEC8 Chapter 5. Knowledge and Virtuous Life. Beltran (2024) 7  1 which claims that the things around us have natural ends or purposes (sing.: teleos), which are 2 expressed or represented by their proper functioning. Humans have three categories of 3 functions: vegetative, animal and human. The main teleos of the human functions is practical 4 reason (or practical wisdom), which uses deliberation to examine and decide on options for 5 human behaviour, ideally to enable living a more full, complete life. The human functions 6 include moral and intellectual values, which are complex skills such as justice, courage, and 7 temperance. Human character is what unifies these virtues in a way to balance the rational, 8 emotional, and social areas of living. We must somehow acquire the necessary inner 9 dispositions (or virtues). That is not always easy or obvious. 10 Aristotle's *Nicomachean Ethics* offers a comprehensive account of how one can achieve a 11 fulfilled and happy life. It emphasizes the development of virtue through rational activity, the 12 importance of moral and intellectual virtues, the role of friendships, and the pursuit of a 13 contemplative life. This work has had a profound influence on ethical thought throughout 14 history and continues to be a cornerstone of moral philosophy. 15 1AY2425 GEC8 Chapter 5. Knowledge and Virtuous Life. Beltran (2024) 8  1 2 3 Aristotle's *Nicomachean Ethics* is a foundational philosophy that explores the nature of the 4 good life and the concept of virtue. 5 6 1. The Goal of Human Life: Eudaimonia 7 Aristotle begins by asserting that every action and pursuit aims at some good. The 8 highest good, which he identifies as the ultimate goal of human life, is *eudaimonia*, often 9 translated as "happiness" or "flourishing." Eudaimonia is achieved by living a life in accordance 10 with reason and virtue, which is the function unique to humans. 11 12 2. The Concept of Virtue 13 14 Virtue (arete) for Aristotle is a trait of character manifested in habitual action. Virtues 15 are developed through practice and habituation. He distinguishes between two types of virtues: 1AY2425 GEC8 Chapter 5. Knowledge and Virtuous Life. Beltran (2024) 9  1 a. moral virtues (e.g., courage, temperance, generosity) and b. intellectual virtues (e.g., wisdom, 2 understanding, prudence). Moral virtues are about finding the mean between excess and 3 deficiency (the "Golden Mean"). For example, courage is the mean between recklessness and 4 cowardice. 5 6 3. Moral Virtues and the Doctrine of the Mean 7 8 The Doctrine of the Mean is central to Aristotle's ethics. According to this principle, 9 virtue is about finding the moderate position between two extremes. Each moral virtue 10 corresponds to a mean between two vices: one of excess and one of deficiency. This mean is 11 relative to us and depends on circumstances and individual characteristics. 12 13 Imagine you're working on developing the virtue of patience. According to Aristotle, 14 virtues are developed through habitual practice. You can practice patience by consciously 15 working on staying calm and composed in stressful situations, like dealing with a long wait or a 16 difficult customer. Over time, this habitual practice will help you embody patience more 17 naturally in various aspects of your life. 18 19 4. The Role of Reason 20 21 Reason is essential in identifying the mean and in guiding ethical behavior. For 22 Aristotle, a rational soul guides actions and emotions, helping one achieve moral virtue. The 23 intellectual virtue of *phronesis* (practical wisdom) is crucial in applying reason to moral 24 decisions and actions. When making a significant decision, such as choosing a career path or 25 handling a personal conflict, Aristotle’s concept of practical wisdom suggests you should 26 carefully consider the situation, weigh the options, and make a decision that aligns with virtue. 27 This involves not just knowing what is right but applying that knowledge appropriately to 28 achieve the best outcome. 29 30 5. The Importance of Habituation 31 32 Aristotle believes that virtues are not innate but are developed through practice. 33 Repeated actions form habits, which in turn shape character. A person becomes virtuous by 34 performing virtuous acts consistently over time, cultivating good habits. 35 36 Imagine you're working on developing the virtue of patience. According to Aristotle, 37 virtues are developed through habitual practice. You can practice patience by consciously 38 working on staying calm and composed in stressful situations, like dealing with a long wait or a 39 difficult customer. Over time, this habitual practice will help you embody patience more 40 naturally in various aspects of your life. 41 42 6. Friendship and the Good Life 43 44 Friendship (*philia*) is essential for a good life. Aristotle discusses three types of 45 friendship: friendships of utility, pleasure, and virtue. True friendship, based on virtue, is rare 46 and occurs between good people who wish well for each other for the sake of the other. Such 47 friendships contribute significantly to one's happiness and moral development. 48 1AY2425 GEC8 Chapter 5. Knowledge and Virtuous Life. Beltran (2024) 10  1 In building and maintaining friendships, Aristotle emphasizes the importance of 2 friendships based on virtue. Aim to cultivate relationships where mutual respect, support, and 3 shared values are central. This might involve investing time and effort into friendships that 4 encourage personal growth and provide genuine support, rather than those based merely on 5 utility or pleasure. 6 7 7. Contemplation and the Highest Good 8 9 While moral virtues are important, Aristotle argues that the highest form of happiness 10 comes from the life of contemplation (*theoria*). Contemplative life is the most self-sufficient 11 and the closest to divine activity, as it involves the exercise of reason, which is the highest 12 aspect of human nature. To achieve eudaimonia, or a flourishing life, focus on activities that 13 contribute to your overall well-being and happiness. This could include engaging in meaningful 14 work, nurturing relationships with family and friends, and pursuing personal development. By 15 aligning your actions with your values and striving for a balanced life, you work towards a 16 state of flourishing that Aristotle considers the highest good. 17 18 8. The Role of External Goods 19 20 While virtue is necessary for happiness, Aristotle acknowledges that external goods 21 (e.g., wealth, health, social status) also play a role. These goods provide the conditions that 22 allow people to exercise virtue more fully. 23 24 Nicomachean Ethics argued that virtues are achieved by finding the middle ground 25 between two vices, one of excess and the other of deficiency. For example, courage is the middle 26 ground between cowardice (deficiency) and recklessness (excess). 27 1AY2425 GEC8 Chapter 5. Knowledge and Virtuous Life. Beltran (2024) 11  1 2 Virtue Ethics During the Hellenistic Era 3 4 The Hellenistic era, marked by the spread of Greek culture and influence after the 5 conquests of Alexander the Great, profoundly shaped virtue ethics by emphasizing personal 6 ethics and the pursuit of a good life in response to the political instability and cultural diversity 7 of the time. Philosophical schools such as Stoicism and Epicureanism emerged, focusing on how 8 individuals could achieve happiness, inner peace, and virtue in an uncertain world. Stoics 9 emphasized living in accordance with nature and reason, developing resilience to external 10 circumstances, while Epicureans sought tranquility through the moderation of desires and the 11 cultivation of simple pleasures. The political and social upheavals of the era led to a focus on 12 personal ethics and self-sufficiency, encouraging individuals to find stability and meaning 13 within themselves, rather than in external factors like wealth, power, or status. 14 15 Stoicism 16 17 The Stoics, a school of philosophy founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early 3rd 18 century BCE, developed a distinctive ethical theory that emphasized rationality, self-control, 19 and the alignment of human life with nature. Stoicism became one of the most influential 20 philosophies of the Greco-Roman world, shaping the thoughts of notable philosophers such as 21 Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius. Stoic ethical theory offers a comprehensive framework 22 for achieving a virtuous and tranquil life by focusing on rationality, self-control, and acceptance 23 of the natural order. It encourages individuals to cultivate inner virtues, maintain indifference 24 to external conditions, and live in harmony with the rational structure of the universe. 25 Stoicism's emphasis on personal responsibility, resilience, and universal brotherhood continues 26 to resonate and inspire people seeking a life of purpose and inner peace. 27 28 The key tenets of Stoic ethical theory are as follows: 29 30 1. Virtue as the Highest Good 31 32 The Stoics believed that virtue (*aretē*) is the only true good and the highest aim of 33 human life. For the Stoics, virtue consists of wisdom, courage, justice, and temperance. Virtue 34 alone is sufficient for happiness (*eudaimonia*), meaning that a virtuous person can maintain 35 inner peace and contentment regardless of external circumstances. This contrasts with other 36 ethical theories that might consider wealth, pleasure, or social status as contributing to a good 37 life. 38 39 2. Living According to Nature 40 41 A central tenet of Stoicism is the idea of living in accordance with nature (*kata 42 physin*). This means living in harmony with the rational order of the universe, which they 43 believed was governed by a divine, rational principle (often equated with *Logos*). Humans, 44 possessing reason, should live rationally and align their desires and actions with the natural 45 order, striving to understand and accept the universe’s workings. 46 47 3. The Role of Reason 48 1AY2425 GEC8 Chapter 5. Knowledge and Virtuous Life. Beltran (2024) 12  1 Reason (*logos*) is fundamental in Stoic ethics. It is through the exercise of reason that 2 individuals can distinguish between what is within their control (internal states, beliefs, and 3 actions) and what is not (external events, other people's actions, fate). By using reason, one can 4 cultivate an attitude of detachment towards things beyond one's control, focusing instead on 5 maintaining virtuous character and rational judgment. 6 7 4. The Dichotomy of Control 8 9 A significant Stoic concept is the dichotomy of control, which divides life’s events into 10 two categories: those we can control and those we cannot. Stoics taught that we should not be 11 concerned with things beyond our control (like external events and other people’s actions) but 12 focus on our own actions, judgments, and responses. By doing so, we achieve tranquility and 13 avoid unnecessary suffering. 14 15 5. Indifference to External Goods 16 17 The Stoics categorized things into *goods*, *evils*, and *indifferents*. Virtue is the 18 only true good, and vice is the only true evil. Everything else (wealth, health, pleasure, pain, 19 etc.) is considered an indifferent (*adiaphora*) Indifferents can be preferred (like health and 20 wealth) or dispreferred (like sickness and poverty), but they do not contribute to one's moral 21 worth. A virtuous person maintains equanimity regardless of these external conditions. 22 23 24 25 6. Emotion and the Stoic Sage 26 27 Stoicism emphasizes the control of emotions (*pathē*), which they saw as irrational and 28 stemming from false judgments. Negative emotions like fear, anger, and grief arise from 29 mistaken beliefs about what is good or bad. The ideal Stoic sage is someone who has achieved 30 perfect wisdom and self-control, maintaining *apatheia*—freedom from disruptive emotions— 31 by holding correct beliefs and understanding the nature of things. 32 33 34 7. Cosmopolitanism 35 36 Stoicism introduced the idea of cosmopolitanism—the belief that all human beings 37 belong to a single community based on shared reason and rationality. The Stoics believed that 38 every individual is part of a universal city (the *cosmos*) and that moral obligations extend 39 beyond local or national boundaries. This view promotes the idea of universal brotherhood, 40 where each person’s duty is to act justly and benevolently towards others, regardless of their 41 status or origin. 42 43 8. Ethical Development and Practice 44 45 Stoic ethics is practical, emphasizing the development of character through daily 46 practices like self-reflection, meditation, and philosophical contemplation. They advocated a 47 disciplined life, focusing on continuous self-improvement, examining one's own thoughts and 48 actions, and adhering to Stoic principles regardless of external circumstances. 1AY2425 GEC8 Chapter 5. Knowledge and Virtuous Life. Beltran (2024) 13  1 2 9. Acceptance of Fate (Amor Fati) 3 4 The Stoics taught acceptance of fate (*amor fati*), meaning love of one’s fate. Since the 5 universe is governed by a rational order, everything that happens is part of that order. Stoics 6 advocate for the acceptance of whatever happens, understanding that external events are part of 7 the natural order. By aligning one’s will with nature, one attains inner peace and resilience. 8 9 Key Stoic philosophers include: 10 11 1. **Zeno of Citium**: Founder of Stoicism, Zeno laid the foundations of Stoic ethical theory, 12 emphasizing the importance of living according to nature and virtue. 13 2. **Chrysippus**: One of the most influential early Stoics, he developed much of the Stoic 14 system, including logic, ethics, and physics. 15 3. **Seneca**: A Roman philosopher, statesman, and advisor to Emperor Nero, Seneca's 16 writings on ethics emphasize the practical application of Stoic principles to daily life. 17 4. **Epictetus**: A former slave, Epictetus taught that philosophy is a way of life, focusing on 18 the control of one’s own mind and the acceptance of fate. 19 5. **Marcus Aurelius**: The Roman Emperor and Stoic philosopher, Marcus Aurelius, in his 20 *Meditations*, provides reflections on how to live virtuously and maintain tranquility amidst 21 the challenges of life. 22 23 24 25 Epicureanism 26 27 Epicurean ethics, founded by the Greek philosopher Epicurus in the 4th century BCE, is 28 a hedonistic ethical theory that focuses on the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain as 29 the primary goals of life. However, unlike crude hedonism, which might advocate for 30 indulgence in all pleasures, Epicureanism is more sophisticated, emphasizing the pursuit of 31 simple and sustainable pleasures. 32 33 Epicurean ethics offers a nuanced approach to hedonism, emphasizing the pursuit of 34 sustainable, natural, and necessary pleasures while avoiding excess and the pursuit of wealth, 35 fame, and power. It highlights the importance of mental tranquility, the role of prudence, and 36 the value of simple living and friendship in achieving a happy life. By advocating for the 37 reduction of fear and anxiety, especially regarding death and the gods, Epicurus aimed to free 38 individuals from the constraints that prevent them from living fully and joyfully. This ethical 39 theory remains relevant as a guide for those seeking a balanced and fulfilling life. 40 41 Here are the main points of Epicurean ethics: 42 43 1. Pleasure as the Highest Good 44 45 a. Hedonism: At the core of Epicurean ethics is the belief that pleasure (*hedone*) is the 46 highest good and the primary motivation for human life. Pleasure, according to Epicurus, is the 47 starting point and the end goal of a happy life. 1AY2425 GEC8 Chapter 5. Knowledge and Virtuous Life. Beltran (2024) 14  1 b. Absence of Pain: Epicurus defined pleasure not just as sensory or bodily pleasure but 2 as the absence of pain (*aponia*) and distress (*ataraxia*), both in the body and in the mind. 3 True pleasure is achieved by minimizing pain and anxiety. 4 5 2. Types of Pleasure 6 7 a. Kinetic and Static Pleasures: Epicurus distinguished between kinetic (active) pleasures, which 8 involve satisfying a desire (e.g., eating when hungry), and static (passive) pleasures, which are 9 the state of having no unsatisfied desires (e.g., being free from hunger). 10 b. Natural and Necessary Pleasures: He also categorized pleasures into three types: 11 i. Natural and necessary pleasures:These are essential for survival and happiness, such as 12 food, shelter, and friendship. Fulfilling these leads to stable happiness. 13 ii. Natural but unnecessary pleasures: These include luxurious desires, like gourmet food, 14 which are pleasant but not necessary. 15 iii.Unnatural and unnecessary pleasures: These are desires for wealth, power, fame, etc., which 16 often lead to more anxiety and are to be avoided. 17 18 3. The Pursuit of Ataraxia (Tranquility) 19 20 Mental Peace: Epicurean ethics emphasizes achieving *ataraxia*, a state of mental 21 tranquility and freedom from fear. This state is considered the highest form of pleasure because 22 it involves a calm and untroubled mind. 23 24 Freedom from Fear: A major source of anxiety for people, according to Epicurus, is fear 25 of the gods and fear of death. By promoting a materialistic and non-religious worldview, 26 Epicurus aimed to free people from these fears. He argued that the gods, if they exist, are 27 indifferent to human affairs and that death is simply the cessation of consciousness, not 28 something to be feared. 29 30 4. **Simple Living** 31 32 - **Moderation and Simplicity:** Epicurus advocated for a simple life. He believed that by 33 understanding what is truly necessary for happiness, one could avoid the pursuit of unnecessary 34 and potentially harmful pleasures. 35 - **Self-Sufficiency:** A simple life also leads to greater self-sufficiency, reducing dependence 36 on external factors for happiness. By appreciating simple pleasures, such as friendship, 37 intellectual conversation, and contemplation, one can lead a content life. 38 39 5. The Role of Wisdom 40 41 Prudence: Wisdom, or prudence (*phronesis*), is the most important virtue in 42 Epicurean ethics. It involves understanding the nature of pleasure and pain and making choices 43 that maximize long-term pleasure and minimize pain. 44 45 Decision-Making:Prudence helps individuals discern which desires are worth pursuing 46 and which should be avoided. It is through prudent decision-making that one can achieve a life 47 of continuous pleasure and tranquility. 48 1AY2425 GEC8 Chapter 5. Knowledge and Virtuous Life. Beltran (2024) 15  1 6. Friendship and Community 2 3 Value of Friendship: Epicurus placed a high value on friendship, seeing it as one of the 4 greatest sources of pleasure. Friendships provide security, joy, and a sense of belonging, all of 5 which are essential for a happy life. 6 7 Mutual Benefit:Epicurean friendships are based on mutual benefit and the recognition of 8 shared values and goals. They are not exploitative but are grounded in the mutual pursuit of 9 happiness. 10 11 7. Critique of Conventional Desires 12 13 Rejection of Materialism: Epicurus criticized the pursuit of wealth, power, and luxury, 14 seeing them as sources of anxiety and dissatisfaction. These pursuits often lead to more desires, 15 creating a cycle of never-ending want. 16 17 Focus on Inner Peace: By focusing on inner peace and the satisfaction of natural and 18 necessary desires, one can achieve lasting happiness. 19 20 8. Death is Not to Be Feared 21 22 Materialism and the Soul: Epicurus believed in atomism, the idea that everything, 23 including the soul, is composed of atoms. Thus, when a person dies, the soul disintegrates, and 24 there is no afterlife. 25 No Sensation After Death: He argued that death should not be feared because, when we 26 are dead, we no longer have sensation. As he famously stated, "Death is nothing to us," because 27 when we are alive, death is not present, and when death comes, we are no longer there to 28 experience it. 29 30 END OF PART I. (Coverage of Quiz 3) 31 Part II will be posted next meeting 32 1AY2425 GEC8 Chapter 5. Knowledge and Virtuous Life. Beltran (2024) 16