The Anatomy and Mechanics of the Human Hand PDF

The Anatomy and Mechanics of the Human Hand CRAIG L TAYLOR, Ph.D.,1 AND ROBERT J. SCHWARZ, M.D.2 It is obvious to all that the human hand ical possibilities, gi...

The Anatomy and Mechanics of the Human Hand CRAIG L TAYLOR, Ph.D.,1 AND ROBERT J. SCHWARZ, M.D.2 It is obvious to all that the human hand ical possibilities, give to the hand its capacity represents a mechanism of the most intricate for innumerable patterns of action. fashioning and one of great complexity and T H E FUNCTIONAL STRUCTURE OE THE H A N D utility. But beyond this it is intimately cor- related with the brain, both in the evolution of THE BONES the species and in the development of the in- The bones of the hand, shown in Figure 1, dividual. Hence, to a degree we "think" and naturally group themselves into the carpus, "feel" with our hands, and, in turn, our hands comprising eight bones which make up the contribute to the mental processes of thought wrist and root of the hand, and the digits, each and feeling. composed of its metacarpal and phalangeal In any mechanism, animate or inanimate, segments (Table 1). The carpal bones are functional capabilities relate both to structural characteristics and to the nature of the control Table 1 system available for management of func- BONES AND JOINTS OF THE HAND AND WRIST tions singly or in multiple combinations. Just so with the human hand. Analysis of normal Carpal bones hand characteristics therefore requires an GM, Greater multangular understanding of both sensory and mechanical N, Navicular features. Of course whole volumes have been L, Lunate written on hand anatomy, and it is not pos- T, Triquetrum sible in a short article to describe all elements P, Pisiform LM, Lesser multangular in detail. It is helpful, however, to review the C, Capitate basic construction of bones and joints and of H, Hamate the neuromuscular apparatus for governing Metacarpal bones motions and forces. Twenty-four muscle M - I , II, III, IV, V groups, controlled by the various motor and First phalangeal series sensory nerve pathways, with their rich po- FP-I, II, III, IV, V tentialities for central connection, and acting Second phalangeal series upon a bone and joint system of great mechan- SP-II, III, IV, V Third phalangeal series TP-I, II, III, IV, V 1 Joints Professor of Engineering, University of California, RC, Radiocarpal Los Angeles; member, Advisory Committee on Arti- IC, Intercarpal ficial Limbs, National Research Council, and of the CM, Carpometacarpal Technical Committee on Prosthetics, ACAL, N R C. 2 MP, Metacarpophalangeal Instructor in Otolaryngology, College of Medical PIP, Proximal interphalangeal Evangelists, Los Angeles; formerly Assistant in Engi- DIP, Distal interphalangeal neering Research, University of California, l.os Angeles. 22  23 Fig. 1. Bones and articulations of the hand, including the interosseus muscles. A, volar view; B, dorsal view. For nomencla ture, see Tables 1 and 2. Fig. 2. Angles of rotation about the wrist. A, extension (or dorsiflexion); B, flexion (or volar flexion); C, radial flexion; D, ulnar flexion.  24 TAYLOR AND SCHWARZ arranged in two rows, those in the more proximal row articulating with radius and ulna. Be- tween the two is the intercarpal articulation. The bony conformation and ligamentous at- tachments are such as to prevent both lateral and dorsal-volar translations but to allow par- ticipation in the major wrist motions (Fig. 2). In each of the digits, the anatomical design is essentially the same, with exceptions in the thumb. Metacarpals II through V articulate so closely with the adjacent carpal bones of the distal row that, although they are capable of some flexion and extension, independence of motion is very limited. The metacarpal shafts are arched to form the palm, and the distal ends are almost hemispherical to receive the concave curvature of the proximal ends of the first phalanges. The metacarpophalangeal joint exhibits a pattern seen also in the interphalangeal joints. As shown schematically in Figure 3, the vir- tual center of rotation lies approximately at the center of curvature of the distal end of the proximal member. The lateral aspects of the joint surfaces are narrowed and closely bound with ligaments, so that lateral rotation is small in the metacarpophalangeal joints and lacking entirely in the phalangeal articula- tions. Hence, the latter are typical hinge joints. The thumb differs from the other digits (Table 2) lie in the forearm and, narrowing first in that the second phalanx is missing and, into tendons, traverse the wrist to reach in- second, in that there is greater mobility in the sertions in the bony or ligamentous com- carpometacarpal articulation. ponents of the hand. Generally, the flexors (Fig. 4) arise from the medial epicondyle of MUSCLES AND TENDONS the humerus, or from adjacent and volar as- Most of the muscles of hand and wrist pects of the radius and ulna, and then course down the inside of the fore- arm. They are, therefore, in part supinators of the forearm (Fig.5).The extensors (Fig.6) of wrist and digits originate from the lateral epicondyle and parts of the ulna, pass down the dorsal side of the forearm, and thus assist in pronation. The thumb shares in the general flexor-extensor Fig. 3. Section through radius, lunate, capitate, and the bony structure scheme, but its extensors and of digit III, showing virtual centers of rotation of each segment upon the abductors originate from mid- next more proximal one. When the fist is clenched, the prominence of the knuckles is formed by the head of the more proximal member of each articu- and distal parts of radius and lation. For nomenclature, see Table 1. ulna.  25 Fig. 4. Flexors of wrist and digits. For nomenclature, see Table 2. The tendons of wrist and hand pass through finger, specialized for the adduction of the bony and ligamentous guide systems, as shown digits and for opposition patterns such as schematically in Figure 7. Flexor tendons pass making a fist, spherical grasp, and so on. through a "tunnel" bounded dorsally by carpal THE PALMAR AND DIGITAL PADS bones, laterally by the greater multangular and the projection of the hamate, and volarly by The volar aspect of the palm and digits is the tough transverse carpal ligament. Simi- covered with copious subcutaneous fat and a larly, the dorsal carpal ligament guides the relatively thick skin so designed in a series of extensor tendons, and a system of sheaths folds that it is capable of bending in prehen- serves as a guide for flexor and extensor tendons sion. The folds are disposed in such a way as through the metacarpal and phalangeal to make for security of grasp, while the under- regions. lying fat furnishes padding for greater firmness The intrinsic muscles of the hand, i.e., in holding. Because, however, slipping of the those with both origin and insertion confined skin over the subcutaneous fat would lead to to wrist and hand (Fig. 8), are, with the ex- insecure prehension, the folds are tightly bound ception of the abductors of thumb and little down to the skeletal elements, much as mat-  26 tresses and upholstered furniture are quilted THE DORSAL INTEGUMENT or otherwise fastened to prevent slippage of Unlike the volar surface, the dorsal side of the filler. the hand is covered with thin, soft, pliable In the hand, the volar skin is tied down by skin and equally mobile subcutaneous tissue, white fibrillar tissue connecting the sheaths of both capable of yielding easily under tension. the flexor tendons to the deep layer of the Because in flexion of the fingers and in making dermis along the lateral and lower edges of the a fist the covering on the back of the hand must palmar fascia. The folds therefore vary with be able to stretch from wrist to fingernails, the the relative lengths dorsal skin is arranged in numerous minute of the metacarpal redundancies, which, in the fiat-of-hand, are bones and with the manifest in the typical transverse wrinkles, mutual relations of particularly over the phalangeal articulations. the sheaths of the Special adaptations in the dorsal skin of the tendons and the thumb accommodate the distinctive rota- edge of the palmar tional planes of that digit about its carpometa- carpal articulation. In the normal, healthy fascia. hand, the degree of redundancy in any given The sulci, or fur- area is just such that all wrinkles are dis- rows, are emphasized patched when the fist is clenched. Swelling in because the subcu- any area, dorsal or volar, inhibits flexion- taneous fat in any extension of the part affected. given area is re- stricted to the inter- NERVE AND BLOOD SUPPLY val between the lines along which the skin Three principal nerves serve the muscles of is tied down. Thus the hand (Fig. 9). Nerve supply is indicated, except for minor variations and exceptions, in pressure upon any Table 3. Each of these major nerve trunks individual montic- diverges into countless smaller branches ending ulus cannot dis- in the papillae of the palmar pads and dorsal place the underlying skin, and the whole neuromuscular system is soft tissue beyond so coordinated in the brain that motor re- the boundaries es- sponse to stimuli is ordinarily subconscious and tablished by the reflex. Thus an object slipping from the grasp fibrillar connections. is automatically gripped more firmly, but not The relative size of so firmly as to damage the hand itself. Noxious any particular em- stimuli are rejected automatically, as when inence is an indica- tion of the size of Fig. 5. Forearm design as the muscle involved related to hand mobility. By virtue of this arrange- and of its rela- ment, the hand can be ro- tive d e v e l o p m e n t tated through 180 deg., through usage, with palm up to palm down, with the elbow flexed. With the exception that the arm fully extended, the size of the hy- participation of shoulder pothenar eminence and elbow allows the hand depends in part upon to be rotated through al- most 360 deg., palm up to the prominence of palm up. U, ulna; R, radius; the pisiform. P, pronation; S, supination.  27 Fig. 6. Extensors of wrist and digits. For nomenclature, see Table 2. the fingers are withdrawn from an object un- 35 deg. (Fig. 11). It is worth noting that this comfortably hot. is the position of greatest prehensile force The wrist and hand receive their blood sup- (Fig. 12, bottom). The mid-position for radial ply from the radial and ulnar arteries, which or ulnar flexion appears to be such that the run parallel with the bones concerned, enter metacarpophalangeal joint center of digit I I I the hand through the flexor "tunnel," and lies in the extended sagittal plane of the wrist then join through a double-arch system (Fig. (Fig. 11). 10). Small branches from the arches serve the Typically, the conformation of fingers and digits. The major venous system comprises thumb is similar to that shown for palmar pre- the basilic and cephalic veins superficially hension (Fig. 13), the fingers being more and placed on the volar surface of the forearm. more flexed from index to little finger. The re- T H E RESTING H A N D PATTERN lations between thumb, palm, and fingers are The resting hand assumes a characteristic such as to permit grasp of a 1.75-in. cylinder posture, a feature easily seen when the hand crossing the palm at about 45 deg. to the hangs loosely at the side. The resting wrist radioulnar axis. Bunnell (4) considers this "an takes a mid-position in which, with respect to ancestral position ready for grasping limbs, the extended forearm axis, it is dorsiflexed weapons, or other creatures."  28 Fig. 7. The anatomy of pre- hension. Schematic sections through digits I and III show es- sential relations of muscles and bones. The letters LG indicate the presence of ligamentous guides which channel close to the wrist the tendons of muscles originat- ing in the forearm. Guide line X—X indicates relative position of carpal bases of thumb and fin- gers. For rest of nomenclature, see Tables 1 and 2. From Taylor (12). FIXED HAND ADAPTATIONS tating about a fixed center, as implied in dia- In thrusting or striking actions and the like, grams such as Figure 2, can be justified only the hand may assume fixed and rigid postures as a convenient approximation. while functioning with the arm in support. The muscles traversing the wrist include These represent nonspecialized functions in those inserting into the carpus and metacarpus which the hand serves merely as an adapted and those mediating flexion and extension of "end of the arm." The various forms include the flat-of-hand, the clenched fist, the knuckle and digital support postures, and so on. WRIST MECHANICS The wrist joint, composed of the radiocarpal and intercarpal articulations (Fig. 1), has an elliptical rotation field with the major axis in the dorsal-volar excursion, the minor in the ulnar-radial. No significant torsion occurs. Bunnell (4) gives the angular excursions about the radiocarpal and intercarpal articulation as shown in Table 4. The rotation within the carpal bones during these movements is too complicated for brief treatment. Not only do the rotations occur at several articulating surfaces, but the virtual axes of rotation lie distal to the contact sur- faces owing to gliding motions in the convex- concave structure of the joints. Idealization of Fig. 8. Volar intrinsic muscles of the hand. For the motions into those of a simple lever, ro- nomenclature, see Table 2.  29 the phalanges. The latter contribute to the photographic observation of the prehension wrist action, particularly under loads. In such patterns naturally assumed by individuals cases, the finger muscles develop reaction when (a) picking up and (b) holding for use against the object held (or within the hand itself if the fist is clenched) and add their forces to wrist action. The forces, action, and group- Table 4 ing of these muscles are given in Table 5. ANGULAR EXTENT OF WRIST FLEXIONS" PREHENSION PATTERNS It is evident equally from a study of the muscle-bone-joint anatomy and from observa- tion of the postures and motions of the hand that an infinite variety of prehension patterns is possible. For purposes of analysis, however, it suffices to describe the principal types. Seeking a logical basis for defining the major prehension patterns, Keller et al. (9) found that the object-contact pattern furnishes a satisfactory basis for classification. From Fig. 9. Nerves supplying the hand. Top to bottom, ulnar nerve, median nerve, radial nerve. See Table 3.  30 Fig. 10. Blood supply to the upper extremity. A, above, medial view of the elbow. A, bottom, dorsal veins of the hand. B, superficial veins of the arm. C, arteries of the arm. a From Fick (7). '' The palmaris longus, absent in about 15 percent of cases, is omitted from the summed Fick forces of volar flexion. c Averages from measurements of maximum forces normal to the hand, applied at the metacarpophalangeal joint, on 15 young males at the University of California at Los Angeles (unpublished data).  31 Fig. 11. The resting hand pat- tern. common objects used in everyday life, three types were selected from among those originally classified by Schlesinger (10). These, ap- pearing in Figure 13, are palmar, tip, and lateral pre- hension, respectively. The frequency with which each of these types occurred in the investigation cited is given in Table 6. While the relative percentages differ in the two types of action, the order of frequency with which the prehension patterns occurred is the same. 3 MECHANICAL-ANATOMICAL BASIS or u p " the hand (Fig. 13). The counterbalancing PREHENSION PATTERNS digital extensor inserts into the two most dis- It is convenient to analyze digital mechanics tal phalanges and, on contraction, rigidly ex- in terms of flexion-extension variations in the tends the entire finger. Coordinated action digits, thumb postures, and variations in the between extensor and flexor groups, however, permits fixed intermediate positions of each radioulnar axis. segment of the system. INDIVIDUATION OF DIGITAL FLEXION-EXTENSION Two common postures of this system may Insertion of flexor and extensor muscle sys- be pictured. In palmar prehension (Fig. 13), tems into several major segments along the the carpal and metacarpal segments commonly proximal-distal axis provides a variety of fix the wrist in moderate extension, while the flexion-extension patterns in the digits. In digital configuration, mostly metacarpopha- Figure 7, the essential components are shown langeal flexion coupled with only slight pha- schematically for digits I and I I I. With these langeal flexion, indicates action of the long attachments, fixation of carpal and metacarpal flexors, strongly modified by the lumbricals segments by cocontraction of flexor and ex- and interossei, which are in position not only tensor carpi muscles provides a firm base for to contribute to the metacarpophalangeal independent movements and fixations of the flexion but also to maintain the phalangeal phalangeal segments. Individual flexions of the second and terminal phalanges stem from Table 6 separate flexor muscle groups. Such flexor FREQUENCY or PREHENSION PATTERNS groups, inserted distally, can also cause com- plete cylindrical-grasp prehension by "rolling 3 Predominance of palmar prehension in both activ- ities accounts for adoption of this pattern in the design of modern artificial hands (page 86).  32 TAYLOR AND SCHWARZ extension. In tip pre- hension, the action of muscles upon carpal and metacarpal bones is similar, but distrib- uted flexion in all pha- langeal segments in- dicates predominant flexor activity. THUMB VERSATILITY PATTERNS The versatility of the thumb lies, first, in the variety of its flexion- extension patterns and, second, in the adjust- able, rotatory plane in which flexion-extension can take place. The first of these is directly analogous to the digital system for the other four fingers, in that for Fig. 12. Effect of forearm-hand angle upon wrist flexion and extension forces any given metacarpal and upon prehension forces. Above, relationship between forearm-hand angle and maximum forces of wrist flexion and extension measured at the carpometacarpal position there are nu- joint. Heavy lines, flexion (volar flexion); light lines, extension (dorsal flexion). merous possible posi- Solid lines, averages; dotted lines, standard deviations. Unpublished data, UCLA, tions of the phalanges. 15 male subjects. Below, relationship between forearm-hand angle and maximum The second effect is prehension force measured between thumb and opposing index and middle fingers grasping a 1/2-inch block. Right hand, eight normal male subjects. Solid line, aver- due to the relative age; dotted lines, standard deviations From a UC report (14). mobility of the carpo- metacarpal joint, which allows the thumb to act in any plane neces- cupped for spherical prehension (Fig. 13) as sary to oppose the digits. The principal op- the opponens muscles of thumb and little positions are semidirect, as seen in palmar, finger, aided by other adductors and flexors, tip, and spherical prehensions. Actually, in act to pull these digits toward each other. these cases the plane of the thumb action is Similar alignment occurs when a fist is made. inclined 45 to 60 deg. to the palmar plane. In HAND MOVEMENTS lateral prehension, the plane is approximately parallel to the palmar plane. The large number of muscles and joints of the hand obviously provides the equipment for VARIATIONS IN THE RADIOULNAR AXIS OF THE numerous and varied patterns of movement. HAND Not so evident, but equally important in de- A t h i r d principal m o d e of v a r i a t i o n concerns termining complexity and dexterity of motion, cross-hand a l i g n m e n t s. T h u s t h e m e t a c a r p o - are the large areas of the cerebral cortex given phalangeal joints m a y b e d r a w n i n t o line, a n d over to the coordination of motion and sensa- w i t h a b d u c t e d t h u m b a flat-hand position is tion in the hand. Thus, in the motor cortex the a s s u m e d. At t h e o t h e r e x t r e m e , t h e h a n d is area devoted to the hands approximately  33 Fig. 13. Six basic types of prehension, as defined by Schlesinger (10). equals the total area devoted to arms, trunk, hended object is unyielding, reactions to the and legs (3). This circumstance ensures great flexion forces are afforded by the object. If the potentiality for coordinated movement and object is fragile, or the hand empty, the hand for learning new activities. Similarly, the is maintained in any required prehensile sensory areas are large, so that they determine posture by cocontractions of the opposing such advanced functions as stereognosis, the muscle groups.4 ability to recognize the shape of an object The characteristics of balanced muscular simply by holding it in the hand. The great action when supporting in the hand loads tactile sensitivity of the hand is, of course, in which produce moments at the wrist have large part due to the rich supply of sense organs been studied electromyographically by in the hand surface itself. The threshold for Dempster and Finerty (6). In general, when touch in the finger tip, for example, is 2 gm. average potential amplitudes are used to per sq. mm., as compared to 33 and 26 for the characterize the electrical activity of the forearm and abdomen respectively (2). muscle, the curves of load-action potential The three major types of movement de- are linear. Frequencies range from 35 to 65 scribed by Stetson and McDill (11) are in part per sec. but bear no clear-cut relationship to represented in the hand. They include fixation load. Typically, each of the muscles traversing movements including cocontractions; move- the wrist was found to function as agonist, ments ranging from slow to rapid with control lateral stabilizer, or antagonist as the moment of direction, intensity, and rate; and ballistic load was shifted from direct opposition at movements. 4 There are many other examples of fixation stales, FIXATION MOVEMENTS such as the open-claw conformation of the fingers and In all of the types of prehension described, the extended and rigid index finger for dialing a tele- the hand assumes a fixed position. If the pre- phone.  34 zero deg. to the 90-deg. and then to the 180- motions predominate while the fingers merely deg. positions. The magnitude of the action position themselves to strike the proper key. potentials associated with each of these roles HAND DYNAMICS is approximately in the order 4 : 2 : 1. The hand muscles, their actions, and con- SLOW AND RAPID MOVEMENTS tractile forces are given in Table 5 taken from In movements ranging from slow to rapid, Fick (7). The total Fick force equals the sum- with control of direction, intensity, and rate, mated forces of the individual muscles partici- there is always some degree of cocontraction pating in the action. For each muscle the force to ensure control and to permit changes in is equal to the physiological cross section (i.e., force and velocity. A net force in the muscles the total cross section of the muscle taken nor- causes motion. In this category is a long list mal to its fibers) multiplied by the force factor of activities, such as writing, sewing, tying of 10 kg. per sq. cm., estimated by Fick to knots, and pressing the keys of musical in- hold for human muscle. These forces are pro- struments. Included are most actions involving duced along the axis of the muscle and its differential or integrated motions of the digits. tendon, but since the effective moment arm It is of interest to note that the full capacity upon any of the wrist or hand joints is small, for these motions is seldom developed by the the measured isometric forces are only about average individual. With intensive practice, 10 percent of the total force. significant increases in the facility of manipu- Among the wrist actions, total forces and lation, even with simple operations, may be measured isometric forces assume the same achieved, although individuals differ markedly rank order. The variation,. with wrist angle, in the amount of training gain. The average of both flexor-extensor forces in the wrist and individual has latent potential for development of prehensile forces in the hand is of practical of skill, as shown by the feats of manipulation importance as well as theoretical interest. The occasionally evidenced. Knot-tying, cigarette- prehensile force reaches a maximum at a wrist rolling, and similar complex manipulations angle of about 145 deg. (Fig. 12, bottom). This may be performed with one hand, as often is approximately the angle at which the maxi- demonstrated by accomplished unilateral arm mum forces of wrist flexion and extension occur amputees. According to Tiffin (13), dexterity (Fig. 12, top). It is common experience that differences are correlated neither with mental the wrist assumes this angle when very strong ability nor with hand shape or dimensions, but prehension is required. The lessened forces at Cox (5) points out that they have an impor- wrist angles toward the extreme positions of tant effect on the performance of industrial flexion or extension are attributable to the assembly operations. well-known force reductions in the isometric BALLISTIC MOVEMENTS length-tension curve as a muscle is markedly stretched or slackened (8). The exception to Ballistic movements are rapid motions, this rule, seen in the augmented force of flex- usually repetitive, in which active muscular ion at wrist angle 85 deg., apparently means contractions begin the movement, giving mo- that this degree of wrist extension does not mentum to the member, but cease or diminish stretch the flexor muscles beyond their force their activity throughout the latter part of the maximum. motion. It is unlikely that, of themselves, the fingers utilize this type of motion to any CONCLUSION marked degree. Barnes (/) reviews evidence that in repetitive work finger motions are This, briefly, constitutes the anatomical more fatiguing, less accurate, and slower than basis of hand mechanics, from which it can are motions of the forearm. Consequently, in be seen that normal hand function is the re- repetitive finger activities in which there is a sult not only of a highly complex and versatile ballistic element, such as piano-playing, typing, structural arrangement but also of an equally and operating a telegraph key, wrist and elbow elaborate and fully automatic system of con-  35 trols. As will be seen later (page 78), such of medical practice, Williams and Wilkins, Balti- considerations lay down the principal require- more, 1937. p. 1256. 3. Best and Taylor, op. cit., p. 1418. ments and limiting factors in the design of 4. Bunnell, Sterling, Surgery of the hand, Lippincott, reasonably successful hand substitutes. When, Philadelphia, 1944. in the normal hand, any functional feature, 5. Cox, J. W., Manual skill, Cambridge University either mechanical or sensory-motor, is im- Press, 1934. 6. Dempster, W. T., and J. C. Finerty, Relative ac- paired, manipulative characteristics are re- tivity of wrist moving muscles in static support of duced correspondingly. In the arm amputee, the wrist joint; an electromyographic study, Am. hand structural elements have been wholly J. Physiol., 150:596 (1947). lost, and the most delicate neuromuscular 7. Fick, Rudolf, Handbuch der Anatomic und Mechanik der Gelenke, Dritter Teil, G. Fischer, Jena, 1911. features, those in the hand itself, have been 8. Inman, Verne T., and H. J. Ralston, The mechanics destroyed. Although the lost bone and joint of voluntary muscle, Chapter 11 in Klopsteg and mechanism can be simulated, adequate re- Wilson's Human limbs and their substitutes, placement of the control system defies present McGraw-Hill, New York, 1954. ingenuity. Lacking control comparable to that 9. Keller, A. D., C. L. Taylor, and V. Zahm, Studies to determine the functional requirements for hand in the natural hand, present-day artificial and arm prosthesis, Department of Engineering, hands are necessarily limited in the mechani- University of California at Los Angeles, 1947. cal details that can be utilized, which accounts 10. Schlesinger, G., Der mechanische Aufbau der kunst- for the fact that the regain in function cur- lichen Glieder in Ersatzglieder und Arbeitshilfen, Springer, Berlin, 1919. rently possible in hand prostheses falls far 11. Stetson, R. H, and J. A. McDill, Mechanism of short of duplicating the natural mechanism. different types of movement, Psych. Mono., 32(3): 18 (1923). ACKNOWLEDGMENT 12. Taylor, Craig L., The biomechanics of the normal and of the amputated upper extremity, Chapter 7 The anatomical drawings which accompany in Klopsteg and Wilson's Human limbs and this article are the work of John Cassone, their substitutes, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1954. medical illustrator at the University of Cali- 13. Tiffin, Joseph, Industrial psychology, Prentice-Hall, New York, 1947. fornia, Los Angeles. 14. University of California (Berkeley), Prosthetic De- vices Research Project, Subcontractor's Final LITERATURE CITED Report to the Committee on Artificial Limbs, 1. Barnes, R. M., Motion and time study, Wiley, New National Research Council, Fundamental studies York, 1937. of human locomotion and other information relating 2. Best, C. H., and N. B. Taylor, Physiological basis to design of artificial limbs, 1947. Vol. II.