Animal Welfare & Human-Animal Interaction (11 Files Merged) PDF

First book about intensive poultry: Animal machines, 1964 First british animal welfare committee: Brambell committee The five freedoms: The OG. Made to protect from negative circumstances. - no hunger or thirt - No discomfort - No pain, injury or disease - No distress - F...

First book about intensive poultry: Animal machines, 1964 First british animal welfare committee: Brambell committee The five freedoms: The OG. Made to protect from negative circumstances. - no hunger or thirt - No discomfort - No pain, injury or disease - No distress - Free from confinement (allow hormal behavior) The five domains: Adaptation. Made to emphasize positive emotion and make negative emotion existent but shot - Nutrition - Environment - Physical health - Behavior - All 4 create the mental domain Viewpoints of animal welfare and explanation: 1. Biological function = health and physical needs 2. natural state = ability to engage in natural behavior 3. Emotional state Parameters veterinarians check for biological function: Heart rate, body temp, resp freq Valence-arousal circumflex: Horizontal = Unpleasant-pleasant | Vertical = Activation- deactivation - Unpleasant activation = fear - Unpleasant deactivation = depression and boredom Monitoring animal welfare: - Mostly welfare is inferred based on resources and space  - Way of the future is animal-based mesures = directly looking at animal Welfare standard monitoring : - Good feeding - Good health - Appropriate behavior - Good housing Direct physiological measures of good welfare examples: - big keel bone - little cortisol Indicators of poor welfare: -avoiding behavior with other animals - unable to perform comfort behavior (like nesting) - stereotypy and other abnormal behavior - self-mutilation - aggressive stereotypy: repetitive, precise movement sequence with no obvious goal or function A Negative frequency dependent selection: Behaviorism (comparative psychology): Classical ethology: Heritability of a trait: % phenotypic variation of population explained by the DNA of trait Buffer hypothesis: big brain good for dynamic predictable environments How do salmon know how to get back to natal ground: odor Winner challenge effect: victory --> testosterone --> aggression --> likelihood next victory promiscuity: A mating system where there are no pair bonds, and, unlike polygyandry, being part of group don’t matter Cons of sociality: competition (food, mates), and increased disease transmission How to decrease aggression in a group: Dominance hierarchies (if hierarchy established, you don’t fight someone above you) ~ How are dominance hierarchies determined: intrinsic (body size), or social dynamics (who has been determined as winner or loser in the past, including who has been watched as a winner or loser) - Japanese only care about extrinsic… fights done without an audience do not affect their hierarchies Increased rick of disease transmission: higher in females due to their increased shouldering behavior Benefits of sociality = physiological: - v shape formation - Warmth when huddling up Benefit of sociality: - cooperation (beneficial for every single member of group) - food discovery - Predator detection - Predator defense (bees kill the wasp) - Resource defense (clownfish and their anemone) - Social learning - How does altruism evolve: Altruism makes sense to increase chances of kin selection Hamilton’s Rule: (benefit of action for receiver * coefficient of relatedness between actor and recipient) – cost of action > 0 why do males make less alarm calls: males travel more --> they are less related to group --> Hamilton shows they’re less altruistic types of kin discrimination: - direct familiarization (I grew up with them --> I be altruistic to them) or - phenotype matching (same eye color and stuff) - spatial recognition (Based on geographical distance from natal area) cooperative breeding: few adults reproduce, some others (helpers) help raise offspring - makes sense bc helpers related, often older children Byproduct mutualism: each individual behaves in a selfish way, but when they act together there a side effect of additional benefit to cooperators - grey wolf in pack attacks big prey, maned wolf only eats small birds Reciprocal altruism: individuals act altruistically only when there will be repayment of the altruistic act at a future time - parental care life-history tradeoffs: big decisions (ex = lots kids or high parental care per offspring) - high predation --> high birth o war --> fecundality sexual conflict in parental care: - internal fertilization --> father unsure baby is his + can just assume mom can take care of it and escape before birth - external fertilization --> minimal parental care - indeterminate growth --> can still grow more --> less interested in offering parental care parent-offspring conflict: - for offspring, more energy dedicated to them --> better, but slopes because there’s a point where more energy just doesn’t affect them  - 79\ Large testes found in species where: female is promiscuous (sperm competition) Brood reduction: don’t feed the second baby if resources scare \ Ideal free distribution: Number of individuals in each habitat is proportional to habitat quality 5 assumptions of the ideal free distribution: individuals = - try to maximize fitness - Have equal competitive abilities - Can move freely between patches at no cost - Simply know where the best patch is - Experience linearly increased competition as patches’ number of individuals increases Territoriality effect on trend: fucks the ability to “move freely between patches”. Makes the rich habitat full first, then the poor habitat, and then any new individuals become “floaters” - Territorial defense is energetically costly Why do individuals settle next to each other: - allee effect = in low populations, fitness increases with density (think benefits of sociality) - Conspecific cueing = other individuals indicates high quality location Challenge hypothesis: male-male interactions --> hormone production --> future aggressive behavior Winner effect: previous victory overincreases chances of winning next fight (partly society moment, partly the hormone increase) Hawk-dove model: hawks fight to the death, doves avoid fight - Hawk vs hawk = 50/50 chance victory - Hawk vs dove = 100/0 chance victory  - Dove vs dove = I guess 100/100 but not said When to fight and how intensely to fight over resources: - if resource valuable - Resource-holding potential = Difference in ur goatedness vs opponent’s When should female choice not be based (exclusively) on dominance: when female really care aboutttt - a crucial male-provided resource’s quality --> consider female number if polygyny, and resource quality - If paternal care is very important to female --> avoid dominants since they too busy fighting to care o Bad boys go with strong hot independent girls o Bad boys sometimes help a married lady get more (female gets good genes) o Paternal care is important if she happens to be low quality, or if specie demands it Why does dominance not show resource quality: - ability to monopolize resource is a poor indicator of resource quality in polygynous species, since sharing male with other females is not factored - Not horrible indicator since men will usually fight for better resources, but manipulation could ensue if you accept dominance of shit Male dominance vs copulation costs: - copulation cost decreased since risk of injury caused by competing males is reduced if selected male dominant - Cost also decreased because disease transmission is less likely in strong males since they are less likely to be ill o Not always true given androgen’s immunosuppression - Copulation cost increased when dominant experiences fertilization failure due to sperm depletion Subordinate vs dominant male dealing with sexually transmitted disesase issue: subordinate males more likely to be accepted by females for the sake of privacy, dominant males try to monopolize females to assure privacy Do dominants always make better babies: - being big boy isn’t good energy expenditure in some environmental conditions o Solution = in-population dimorphism, where both dominant and subordinate can be useful to specie. To keep both, the least common phenotype experiences reproductive advantage - Inbreeding concern may trump hierarchies (MHCs) No female preference or subordinate preference means: - if male-male competition trumps female choice, dominant still wins - Otherwise you get it Succesful foraging involves: - tradeoffs. You can’t lookout - Integrating sensory modalities - Learning search image (prey) - Optimal patch-use = when to move to next patch - Optimal diet - Deal with and engage in complex social habitat (like opportunistic behavior) Sensory modalities: How do we know integrating senses improves foraging success: bees trained to use smell and shape visit more flowers than if they only trained with one queue Cryptic prey: well hidden Who can be trained: all animals (vertebrates and invertebrates) All foraging is based on: habituation and operant conditioning Clicker is a: bridge signal of operant conditioning. Announces reward to reinforce behavior. Lumping: training without bridge signal --> less precise behavioral window. Good for training unprecise behavior. Slow learning, but small error risk Steps to teach to touch a target stick: 1. Reward nearby existence of target stick 2. Reward general movement to target stick 3. reward touching target stick 4. reward flying to perch near target stick 5. increase distance Learning something doesn’t mean anything: habituation Chaining: using sequence of trained behaviors to achieve smt cool, like entering carrybox Optimal foraging theory assumptions: - the best feeding behaviors maximize fitness - Increased energy intake rate increases fitness Optimal diet model assumptions: - maximized food intake is most profitable - Food encountered is proportional to its abundance - Different food types have rankable profitability (joules obtained/seconds handling) Profitability of food item calculation: joules obtained/seconds handling Profitability of diet calculation: average energy intake rate of a diet = average joules per food item/(average search time per item + average handling time per item) - handling time is time manipulating food bfr eating Optimal patch-use model only applies when: - foragers maximize energy intake rate - all patches are identical - travel time between patches is constant - harvest declines patch’s harvest rate Optimal patch-use model: attempt to maximize total energy obtained per second, = energy from patch / (travel time to next patch + time spent in patch) When do you give up on seeking new patch: predation fear (artificial light perchance) Bayesian estimation: considering previous observations when determining a patch’s quality - bee trained that patch has 1 or 11 rewards stays if 2 rewards found Model for social foraging: producer-scrounger model - producers find food, scroungers use producers’ discoveries - scrounger equilibrium frequency = point where fitness within both strategies are equal. This is the case in nature since it’s easy to switch strat Animal requirements: - multicellular, eukaryotic. Blastula during early embryonic development Behavior: internal coordination --> externally visible pattern Ethogram: table with objective behavior descriptions Stereotypy: lowkey animal stimming. Behavioral pattern that is - Fixed (specific) - Repetitive - Unique per individual - Sign of bad welfare Proximate vs ultimate: proximate = how. Bottom-up? Development or mechanism. ~autism Ultimate = why. Top-down? Function or evolution. ~Schizo Anthropomorphism and when valid: giving animals human qualities. Generally to avoid except for in animal welfare Research steps: question --> preliminary observations --> hypothesis --> specific, testable predictions --> variables needed (quantify behavior) --> method (+materials) --> data --> analyze data (statistics) --> report 3 Rs: ethics for vertebrates and Cephalopoda (octopuses) - Refinement = reduce discomfort - Replacement = seek alternatives - Reduction = reduce animal number Method types: - Observational = for prelim. No causality. Describing patterns - Experimental - Comparative = ultimating (comparing closely related species for evolution research) - Modelling Individual made by: genotype, epigenetics, and environment Evolution conditions: 1. heredity = have genes 2. variability = mutations, recombination, geneflow (alleles of gene pool increase bc of immigrants) 3. selection = natural, sexual, genetic drift (random events) How you affect ur kid outside of ur DNA is called: Non-genetic inheritance Parent-offspring regression: correlation between presence of behavior in parent vs offspring. Indication of inheritance Frequency dependent selection: - positive = gene becoming more common makes it more useful (ex: altruism) --> drives out other genes - Negative = high gene frequency makes it less useful (ex: selfishness) --> varying levels Measuring fitness: done with proxy’s (variables which are positively correlated with fitness) - Number of reproductive successes - Survival - Mate number - Growth rate or just body size - Feeding efficiency Fitness = _: Fitness = 0 bc all species gonna die Modes of natural selection: directional = the more of trait the better (green better) Disruptive = no or extreme of a trait is best (very green or very red) Stabilizing = intermediate amount of trait is best (brown) Phenotype includes: behavior, morphology (structure) or physiology Instinctual behavior is: precise, known from birth, no learning curve Reflex behavior is: involuntary Fixed action pattern: precise and once started can’t stop Early development environment behavior related factors: prenatal, imprinting, habituation, social, learning, food, stress Dynamic phenotype called: phenotypic plasticity. A change in behavior in response to environment Reaction norm: range of behaviors expressed by a single genotype in different environments (example = range or ur skin color) Gene value: quantification of extent of phenotypic expression of plastic gene Gene-environment interaction: when effect of environment change on one genotype is bigger than the other Phenotypes correlation example: Exploration vs curiosity Heritability: how much of phenotypic difference in a population is explained by genetic differences (in theory, also how much is NOT environment). Varies from 0 to 1. Heritability formula: H^2 (%variation caused by genes)=Vg(enes)/Vp(henotype) Vg formula: Vg = Va + Vd + Vi (these are genes --> behavior components) - additive effects = average effect of a specific allele on the phenotype - Dominance effect = interaction of alleles at same locus - Epistasis = interaction of alleles at different loci (gene-gene interaction) Narrow-sense heritability: H^2 but practical, called h^2. only considers additive effects h^2=Va(dditive)/Vg - Va is determined examining parent-offspring correlations heritability estimates flaw: does not consider environment. High heritability ≠ little environmental influence (example = IQ) --> cannot be used to compare different populations how to find genes that matter: - forward genetics = finding gene responsible for a mutant phenotype - Reverse genetics = understanding phenotypes by mutating genes - Transcriptomics = study gene expression - Quantitative genetics = study multi-locus traits - Statistical genetics = statistically associate phenotype and genotype FOXP2: gene related to language learning (and singing in birds wowww) Destroying song learning 101: 1. Knock out FOXP2 with RNA interference at v young age 2. expose to singing when grown 3. measure singing quality Gene responsible for small amount of phenotypic variation called: minor gene QTL analysis: linking phenotype variation to general loci location based on correlation between loss of phenotype and loss of genetic markers QTL analysis limitations: - requires crossing strains with same but variable loci - Not all loci that contribute to a trait contribute to its phenotypic variation - Mostly limited to major genes Statistical genetics: Entirely comparing patients vs controls’ genome, looking for variants Why sexes do different: - Trives = Parental investment (pregnancy) - Bateman = males increase partners, females can only partner quality --> females become limited resource --> intrasexual selection sexual selection types and example: = intra = success based on same sex interactions, ex male-male competiton inter = success based on opposite sex interactions, ex female selecting a male reasons for female choice: part of intersexual selection 1. Direct benefits = bro will be a good dad and husband --> betters chances for female of survival and future reproduction 2. Indirect benefits = bro is hot --> bring both attractiveness (ty fisherian) and survival genes to future generations (based on condition-dependent ornaments) 3. Sensory bias = a female preference develops for non-sexual purpose and males evolve to exploit it during sexual selection (frog chuck call) Fishers runaway hypothesis basically: genetic correlation between female preference and male possession (attraction to blond men correlated with blond men number in NL) Fishers runaway hypothesis steps: 1. There is variance in tail size and tail preference 2. longer tails are generally more successful (could be accident) --> long tails contribute more offspring 3. offspring have long tails (from father) and long tail preference (from female) 4. process continues, tails keep getting bigger until natural selection puts a stop to it Conditions that favor evolution of honest signals in a species: 1. shared fitness interests of specie members --> dishonesty doesn’t provide benefits (never the case with sexual signals) 2. unfakeable signals (like size) 3. costly signals (whole ass dance) --> handicap principle Paradox of the Leks and solutions: how does genetic diversity exist in systems with strong sexual selection through female choice? Answer = arms race (pathogens force diversity) and condition-dependent ornaments (ornaments that show if ur well fed in current environment situation) Post copulatory sexual selection: - mate guarding = - following mate to avoid extra-pair young (offspring from paired-bonded female made outside her pair bond) - Sperm competition - Cryptic female choice (female discriminating between sperm) 2 ways new reproductive strategies evolve: conditional = different individual condition - Evolutionary stable strategy = new strategy that generally yields higher fitness Bourgeois male: monopolizing females Sneaker male: pretending to be female General reasons for different mating systems: - sexual conflict = sexes have conflicting ways to reproduce success is maximized - Environmental conditions = parental care needs and resource situation Four mating systems and their reasons: - monogamy = biparental care, territorial cooperation, and/or mate guarding - Polygyny (multiple females) = female aggregation for safety or resources - Polyandry: multiple males = resource poor environment --> female can’t do everything, or high predation --> females have to be laying eggs all day - Polygynandry: multiple = huge territorial benefit When is polygyny (multiple females) better than monogamy: 1. abundant resources --> no biparental care needed 2. when benefit of picking alpha ahh male instead of monogamous beta > cost of sharing resources with other females social mating system vs genetic mating system: - social = in theory (often cooperative), genetic = in practice (often individual) - Lions are socially polygynous (one male rules all) but genetically somewhat polygynandrous (subordinate males and outsiders get freaky) Imprinting brain region: forebrain region. Intermediate and medial mesopallium tinbergen’s 4 questions: proximate and ultimate on one axis, dynamic (past) and static (present) in other when is foxp2 expressed: sensitive phases, ie life periods of vocal plasticity (learning youngling) - Practicing --> foxp2 downregulation Key regulators of the sensitive period: 1. Pacers (care givers) cause baseline ig 2. triggers (expected experience) cause GABA-ergic inhibition --> learning timeee 3. breaks (sufficient experience) lead to myelination Evidence environment affects singing (vocal learning): 1. Isolate rearing (isolated birbs don’t sing well) 2. cross festering (adopted birbs since like their foster parents not biological) Experiment to test if animal uses vocal learning to acquire a sound: microscope on da head or virally deliver calcium-indicator (fluorescence --> neural activation) Which brain region does spatial memory in food-caching chickadees: hippocampus neurons are active during Checking, Retrieval, and Cache. Not during visit - Unique combination of neurons encode for specific caches (certified place cells moment) Dispersal and migration is: movement pattern with fitness benefit Dispersal: short distance (--> often passive), sex-biased, one-way movement of individual from their birth population to increase gene flow Migration is usually: yearly cycle of population movement, breeding winter - Long distance (-- > hence active movement) - Undistracted movement, locked tf in - Return movement can be transgenerational Dispersion and migration 3 reasons: 1. Find better conditions (potentially as consequence of breeding dispersal) 2. competition hypothesis = avoid intraspecie competition (younger and weaker ones often leave) 3. natal dispersal = avoid inbreeding - males leave to not do sisters Breeding dispersal: if breeding location fails, move and try a new one. win-stay lose shift strategy. - They also consider Patch-wide reproductive success (how other ppl in colony do) Migration reasons: 1. Diff environment have diff static elements and needs vary at different times of life 2. avoid seasonal resource depression (dynamic elements issue) Types of migration: 1. Complete migration = all individuals do yearly, breeding winter 2. differential = ages or sexes do different, spatially or temporarily - males stay closer usually 3. Partial migration = when only some pop’s individuals have higher fitness by migrating --> some residents and some migrants 4. semelparous migration = migrate only once in life, to reproduce (usually natal area) 4 reasons for partial migration: - escape competition - Resource fluctuation affects smaller individuals more robustly - Staying closer to breeding grounds during winter increases chances of better breeding territory - Subordinates are pushed out Types of partial migrations: winter partial migration = diffs pops share breeding ground but migrate differently during winter - Breeding partial migration = Same winter location but different breeding grounds - Skipped breading partial migration = Only some individuals choose to go to breeding grounds every year Migration steps: 1. Preparation How do we increase chances for successful migration: - Store fuel reserves (especially if non- stop flight) - Morphological changes = grow and shrink organs, feather moulting (new feathers) - Friends know we’re leaving = Internal queues (body clock) or external queues (food availability, day-length, predation, weather) factors - Have appropriate conditions = weather (atmospheric pressure, tide cycle) - Have an orientation system= via landmarks, or compass (latitude from geomagnetic, stars, or sun) How magnetic fields bring about __: bicoordinate navigation - angle of magnetic field changes with latitude - intensity of field varies too migration nature and nurture examples: - blackcaps show same date of restlessness than unknown parents - whooping cranes migrate in straighter lines if flock contains experienced birds consequences of climate change: - day-length doesn’t change --> flycatchers migration no longer aligns with insect hatching date - higher spring temperatures --> earlier insect peaks - blue whale disturbed by ships  ways to study bird movement: bird ringing, tagging, stable isotopes signature (you are what you eat) stable isotopes of diff things show: what animal ate during growth --> where it has been. We can see - bone collagen = years ago - blood cells = 1.5 months ago - blood plasma = 2 weeks ago Perception: energy (light, heat, sound, etc) --> electrical signal within nervous system Cones types ordered by lowest to highest assigned wavelengths (animals): UV, blue, green, red Pit organ: some snakes use to sense 700-1000nm wavelengths (infra-red) Where opsin genes located in primates: some on autosomes, some on sex (x) chromosomes Nocturnal primates are _, to instead have more _: dichromatic, to have less cones and more rods chemoreception: detecting dissolved chemicals taste receptors: Transient and gustatory receptors mechanoreceptors: detect mechanical waves in solids or liquids mechanoreceptors to communicate: - anthropods communicate through solid objects - Lateral line system in fish detects changes in water pressure created by others (like a predator charging towards it) Cephalopods chemoreception called: chemotactility (taste by touch) - Allows detection of poorly soluble ligands Signals: Evolved for signaller’s sake. Act designed to alter another organisms’ behavior. Cues: The receiver benefits. A by-product behavior of a process. - Sometimes the same behavior is a signal in one context and a cue in another. Signal to evolve requirement: cost of signal production < benefit for signaller Aposematism: bright coloration associated with poisons Müllerian mimicry: two toxic species mimic each other, sharing burden of educating predator that they’re toxic Batesian mimicry: mimic toxic organism to mislead predator Signal evolution in response to environment: high pitched calls don’t work in the forest extended phenotypes: traits produced outside body - Modification of environment - Costly to build and maintain Bystander example: third party outside of signaller and intended receiver - Squirrels don’t cache when they hear bird yapping Audience effect: bystanders influence signaler Application of animal communication studies: conservation, pest control, and collaborating with animals (K-9)