Plant Classification (Root, Stem and Leaf Morphology) PDF

INTRODUCTION TO BOTANY Biology = the scientific study of life Botany = the scientific study of plants (and many organisms previously thought to be plants) or in other words it is the biology of plants What is a plant? Chlorophyll Transform light energy to chemical energy No need to move or can...

INTRODUCTION TO BOTANY Biology = the scientific study of life Botany = the scientific study of plants (and many organisms previously thought to be plants) or in other words it is the biology of plants What is a plant? Chlorophyll Transform light energy to chemical energy No need to move or cannot move? Cannot move : responsive to environmental changes, eg : seasons or weather Lowest food chain therefore powers of regeneration  FUNCTION OF PLANTS Food Clothing Buildings and furniture Bio-diesel (Oil palm and Jatropha) Environment SUBDICIPLINS OF BOTANY 1.Systematics/taxonomy 2.Morphology 3.Anatomy 4.Cytology 5.Physiology 6.Genetics 7.Ecology Systematics = the scientific study of biological diversity Because There Are Millions Of Organisms On Earth, We Need Some Sort Of Ordered System For Keeping Track Of Them And Communicating About Them. Without A Name The Information About An Organism Is Lost. The taxonomic hierarchy - Species are grouped into an ordered hierarchical system of classification Kingdom Division (Phylum) Class Order Family Genus Species  Development of classification Until relatively recently organisms were classified as either plants or animals and two kingdoms were recognized. 1. Non-motile autotrophs were placed in the plant kingdom 2. Motile heterotrophs were placed in the animal kingdom  However, as more organisms were discovered and studied it became apparent that many organisms did not fit into this system: 1. Euglena is a unicellular, motile autotroph 2. Fungi (mushrooms and molds), traditionally classified as plants, are non-motile heterotrophs Development of better microscopes led to the discovery that there are two fundamental types of organisms, defined by their cell types: 1. Prokaryotes (bacteria) - lack: nuclei, organelles, 9+2 flagella, chromosomes, multicellularity and sexuality 2. Eukaryotes (nearly all other organisms) - have: nuclei, organelles, 9+2 flagella, DNA associated with histone proteins to form chromatin/chromosomes, sexual reproduction and most are multicellular D. Whitaker proposed a five kingdom system. All Prokaryotes were placed into a single kingdom (Monera) and the Eukaryotes were placed into four kingdoms: Plantae, Fungi, Animalia and Protista Kingdom Animalia (Animals) - motile, multicellular, lack plastids and cell walls, heterotrophic, sexual reproduction Kingdom Plantae (Plants) - nonmotile, multicellular, plastids and autotrophic, cell walls made of cellulose, adapted for life on land, mostly sexual reproduction. Kingdom Fungi (Mushrooms and Molds) - nonmotile, filamentous, lack plastids, cell walls are made of chitin, heterotrophic via absorption of nutrients from dead (saprophytic) or living (parasitic) matter. Virtually all are multicellular except yeast. Both sexual and asexual reproduction Kingdom Protista - lack multicellularity. Heterogeneous assemblage of unicellular, colonial and multicellular Eukaryotes that do not have the distinctive characters of plants, animals or fungi. Eg: protozoa algae molds PLANT KINGDOM Division Bryophyta (mosses, lumut) – tiny plants with no vascular system. Transportation through capillary. Division Pteridophyta (ferns,paku-pakis) –bigger plants, require vascular system for transportation. Tree fern Division Spermatophyta : subdivision Gymnosperm dan Angiosperm. Gymnosperm : four different division of : Coniferophyta, Ginkgophyta, Cycadophyta dan Gnetophyta – NON FLOWERING, SEED PLANTS DIVISION CONIFEROPHYTA - Pinus Female pine cone, sliced lengthwise, viewed Closeup of ovules on through microscope female cone scales. The tissue marked "X" is an ovule.  Male pine cone, sliced lengthwise, viewed through microscope Male pine cone Closeup of pollen sacs on male cone scales. The tiny dots all around the "X" are pollen grains  You can DIVISI GINGKOPHYTA – DAUN distuinguish a BERBENTUK KIPAS Ginkgo from other gymnosperms by its fan shaped and bilobed leaves. All Ginkgo trees have a relatively primitive vascular system. The veins continuously divide into two's. DIVISI GINGKOPHYTA – BIJI Pollen is produced in cones or ball DIVISI CYCADOPHYTA – MALE CYCAD WITH A STROBILUS DIVISI GNETOPHYTA –IMMATURE SEEDS OF GENTUM (MELINJAU (Gnetum gnemon)) Male cone Female cone ANGIOSPERM : FLOWERING, SEED PLANTS DIVISION MAGNOLIOPHYTA : CLASS: Magnoliopsida (dicot) – 250 family eg: Leguminosae, Asteraceae, Moraceae, Malvaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Solanaceae. CLASS: Liliopsida (monocot) – 50 family eg: Gramineae, Orchidaceae, Palmae, Musaceae.  TUGASAN 1 Kumpulan 1: -Root types, root parts and functions - Modified roots Kumpulan 2: -Stem parts and functions Kumpulan 3 : -Modified stems Kumpulan 4: -Leaves functions, types and arrangement Kumpulan 5: -Leaves shape variations and modified leaves ROOT MORPHOLOGY Type of roots : Tap root Dicotyledon, radicle enlarge and form tap root system Fibrous root Monocotyledon, radicles do not live long. Replaced by adventitious roots, forming fibrous sytem Adventitious Form in addition to the roots Terbentuk pada selain dari akar Functions: i) anchor plants into soil ii) absorb water and mineral (nutrients most uptake occurs near root tips) iii) producing plant hormones such as auxin and gibberillin iv) Stored food (carbohydrate) In addition – in some plants carbohydrates that the roots do not immediately need for energy are stored. In roots these excess carbohydrates are usually converted to STARCH and stored in Parenchyma Cells. (Carrots, Turnips, and Sweet Potatoes are stored Starches) The roots of some plants store large amounts of water, which helps the plant to survive during dry periods. Origin of root Plumule (shoot) Radicle (root) Root hairs Root hairs Root tip  Root tip 1. Apical meristem Meristematic cells ; actively dividing and developing new cells 2. Root cap-Single cells Protective tissue apex for apex Parenchymous The first root to emerge from a seed is the primary root. As the plant matures, branches grow from the Primary Root (lateral /secondary root). In some Plants the Primary Root Enlarges, If this first Root Becomes the Largest Root it is called a TAP ROOT (THE LARGEST ROOT). Tap roots can grow deep, reaching water far below the surface of the ground. Beets and Carrots are plants with Tap roots that are used for Food.  Lateral/Secondary (2º) root With root cap and hairs From pericycle ROOT SYSTEMS  A taproot system, consisting of a large central root that formed directly from the radicle within the seed and a set of much thinner lateral 2°&3° or secondary roots. Gymnosperms and dicotyledonous plants 1° are characterized by the tap root systems Fibrous root systems Many small roots that spread out laterally from the base of the stem Development of tap root stop growing leaving fibrous root Examples : Corn (Zea mays) Banana (Musa sp.) Grass (Poaceae) These roots grow near the surface and can collect water in a wide area. Because of the numerous branches of the roots, these plants are excellent for preventing Erosion (Grasses). Fibrous Roots of Monocots often develop from the base of the Stem rather than from other roots. A Few plants have special roots called ADVENTITIOUS ROOTS. ROOTS THAT FORM ON A STEM OR LEAF. SOME GROW ABOVE GROUND AND HAVE SPECIAL FUNCTIONS (Absorb nutrient and also for strong support) Also known as PROP ROOTS  ADVENTITIOUS/PROP ROOTS - Above ground; from nodes Sorghum sp. Pandanus sp. Air root  Orchids Roots on tree branches and spread along the surface White surface = velamen (dead cells) Water proof barrier i.e. not permitting water loss  velamen Aerial root Root cap Protection of root end, parenchyma cell Root hair Developed from epidermis cell, non permenant Secondary roots Roots developed from pericycle The Root TIP is covered by a Protective ROOT CAP, which covers the Apical Meristem. The Root Cap produces a Slimy Substance that functions like Lubricating Oil, allowing the root to move more easily through the soil as it grows. Cells that are crushed or knocked off the root Cap as the root moves through the soil are replaced by new cells produced in the Apical Meristem, where cells are continuously dividing. TUDUNG AKAR Roots do not absorb water and minerals through a smooth Epidermis. Tiny, hairlike projections called ROOT HAIRS on the epidermis absorb water and dissolved minerals from the soil. Root Hairs also INCREASE the Surface Area of the Plant Roots. Akar rerembut – Akar sisi yang menyerap, terbentuk dari sel epidermis  Secondary root– root that formed from pericycle 11. The outermost layer or layers of the Central Vascular Tissue is termed the PERICYCLE. Lateral Roots are formed by the division of Pericycle Cells. Modified roots Modified roots are roots which change their structures to adapt to their environment Roots in some plants change their shape and structure and become modified to perform functions other than absorption and conduction of water and minerals They are modified for support, storage of food and respiration  Modified Roots 1. Tuberous roots Storage of food, Carbohidrat. Dessert : water storage 2. Pneumatophore Root formed from underground roots for respiration Eg : Bakau (Rhizophora) TUBEROUS ROOTS Cassava - Manihot esculentum TUBEROUS ROOTS Carrot – Daucus carota Bakau - Rhizophora sp. 3. Parasitic root Used to obtain food from host. Jarum emas (Striga) 4. Aerial root. Prop root, Ficus, jagong, pandan dan akar banir (buttress root) pada Ficus. BUTTRESS ROOTS Roots with broad-like or plank-like. Growth on upper side for support Base of tree trunk When soil is wet and unstable  Aerial/adventitious Aerial/buttress root Prop root of an understory palm Pandanus root Rain forest palm –roots  STEM MORPHOLOGY STEMS HAVE THREE MAIN FUNCTIONS: A. Holding Leaves Up To The Sunlight. B. Transporting Water And Food Between Roots And Leaves. C. Photosyntehsis In Young Stems In a few plants, stems have additional functions, such as Food Storage. Potatoes (tuber) are Underground Stems that store large amounts of food as starch. 1. Support leaves-Turgor pressure in stems provides a hydrostatic skeleton that supports young plants. Leaves are also supported by a stem's internal structure of collenchyma and sclerenchyma. 2. Produce carbohydrates-Stems of plants are green and photosynthetic. Although photosynthesis in stems is usually not significant compared to leaves, in some plants such as cacti, it accounts for most of the plants carbon fixation. 3. Store materials-Parenchyma cells in stems store large amounts of starch and water. Water accounts for as much as 98% of the weight of many cactus stems. 4. Transport water and solutes between roots and leaves-The vascular system of stems maintains an aquatic environment in leaves and transports sugars and other solutes between leaves and roots. Stems link leaves with the water and dissolved nutrients of the soil. STEM PARTS  SCAR Mark indicating the former place of attachment of petiole, bud or vascular bundles Bud scar Leaf scar Vascular bundles scar  Nodes Area/point where leaf are attached Internodes Stem region between 2 nodes node Internode  STEM MODIFICATION 1. Runners/Stolon Horizontal stems above grounds Beneath surface ground Long and thin internodes Fragaria virginiana Family : Rosaceae (new plant) adventitious buds Runner/stolon Spider Plant - Chlorophytum comosum Family : Anthericaceae Runner/Stolon New plants Bermuda grass – Cynodon dactylon Family : Poaceae Stolon 2. Rhizomes Horizontal stems that grows below ground Scale-like leaves and axillary buds at each node Adventitious roots along the rhizome Thick, fleshy, food-storage organs Rhizome – Stem underground Zingiber officinale - Ginge 3. Bulbs Large buds Surrounded by fleshy leaves Small stem Adventitious roots from bottom of stem Fleshy leaves – food storage Bulb – Undergrounds buds with thickened fleshy scales (leaf) Fleshy scales Roots Stem Onion - Allium cepa Family : Liliaceae Long, above ground leaf Scale-like leaf base Bulbel/bulblet Small bulb/offset arising form base (stem) of a larger bulb  4. CORMS Resembles bulbs Composed entirely of stem tissue Paper/scale-like leaf Adventitious root at the base Food storage Corm – Short, solid, vertical underground stem Yam - Dioscorea sp Family : Dioscoreaceae 5. Culm – Hollow or pithy stalk or stem Paddy – Oryza sativa Bamboo – Bambusa vulgaris, Family : Poaceae Family : Poaceae  6. Tuber Thickened portion of a rhizomes; underground stem for food storage Potato – Solanum tuberosum  7. Tendril A slender, twining organ (modified stem) to grasp for support and climbing Tendril  8. Thorn A stiff, woody modified stem with a sharp end.  9. Phyllode A stem with the form and function of a leaf. Leaflike petiole lacking true leaf Acasia – Acacia mangium 10. Cladode / Cladophyll Flattened stem or leaf-like Having node, very small scale-like leaves Asparagus, cactus Shoots/spears Cladode – A modified stem with form and function of leaf Asparagus sp. CLADOPHYLL SPINE(LEAF)  11. Pseudobulb Pseudo (false). Orchid –epiphyte, canopy plants Enlarge stem segments Water storage during dry season Orchids  Sucker/Tiller Shoot and stem originating from below ground Banana – Musa sp. Paddy – Oryza sativa  LEAVES Most leaves are thin and flat, an adaptation that helps them capture sunlight for photosynthesis. Although this structure may be typical, it is certainly not universal. Like roots and stems, leaves are extremely variable.  FUNCTIONS: 1. The Main function of Leaves is to Trap Light for Photosynthesis, the process of making Carbohydrates from Carbon Dioxide and Water in the presence of Sunlight. 2. Besides making food, the leaves of a few plants can also store food. An Onion is an underground stem surrounded by thick, fleshy leaves that store food. 3. Leaves perform other functions such as protecting some plants from animals and storing water.  Leaf attachment Petiolate - The blade is attached to the stem by a petiole. Sessile - The blade is attached directly to the stem without a petiole. Stipules - A pair of appendages at the base of the petiole. They may protect the young leaf and may be modified into spines or tendrils.  Sheath Leaf without petiole Instead the base of the leaf wraps around the stem to form leaf sheath eg: Rice (Oryza sativa) and corn (Zea mays) Daun Gramineae  Pulvinus The swollen base of a petiole or petiolule Common in legume family (Leguminaceae) Pulvinus Golden Shower – Cassia biflora, Family : Caesalpiniaceae LEAVE TYPES: Simple and compound leaf structure: 1.Simple leaves have a single blade. 2. Compound leaves have more than one blade on a single petiole. The multiple blades of a compound leaf are called leaflets. Palmately compound leaves have leaflets arranged like the fingers of a hand. Pinnately compound leaves have leaflets arranged on either side of an axis, resembling a feather. Trifoliolate leaves have leaflets arranged in threes, like clover. Compound leaves are sometimes twice divided. These leaves are called twice-compound. One leaf with/without petiole on point of origin Leaf not divided into leaflets Cinnamomum sp Compound palmate  Compound pinnate Jasminum sp  Compound pinnate Petiolule Rachis Leaflets Petiole Compound bipinnate Compound tripinnate RACHILLA PETIOLULE petiole LEAFLETS RACHIS  Leaf Arrangement: Opposite - Two leaves grow opposite each other at each node. Alternate - One leaf grows at each node. The leaves alternate sides along the stem. Whorled - Several leaves grow around a single node.  Leaf arrangements simple, simple, simple, alternate, opposite, whorled, pinnately pinnately pinnately netted netted netted VENATION is the arrangement of Veins in a leaf. Veins in Monocots leaves (such as Grasses or Corn Plants) run Parallel (Parallel Venation) to each other, while Veins in Dicots leaves form a Branched network (Net Venation). The main vein or veins repeatedly branch to form a conspicuous network of smaller veins.  Primary (1º)/midrib vein category Parallelodromous 2 or more parallel primary veins originate beside each other at the leaf base Pinnate Monocots : Corn – Zea mays Most dicots leaf Secondary vein Primary vein Tertiary vein SECONDARY (2º) VEIN A B C A :Brochidodromous leaf venation: second order veins are joined. B : Craspedodromous leaf venation: second order veins terminate at the margin. C : Eucamptodromous leaf venation: second order veins diminish and terminate within the leaf blade.  Tertiary (3º) leaf vein Percurrent/Sclariform Reticulate  Reticulate : Net-like vein arrangement Sclariform/Percurrent : Vein arrangement parallel to each other  Leaf Margin Variation Entire – Not toothed, notched or divided. Continuous or straight margins. Dentate : toothed along margin, the teeth directed outward rather than foward Holly – Ilex sp. Family : Aquifoliaceae Dissected : Deeply divided into many narrow segments  Serrate Toothed along the margin the sharp teeth pointing upwards Crenate : With rounded teeth along the leaf margin LEAF ARRANGEMENTS  1. Basal Leaf positioned at or arising from the base of the stem Tulip – Tulipa sp. Family : Liliaceae  2. Alternate Leaf opposite to each other on a stem One leaf per node  3. Opposite  Leaf opposite to each other  Two leaf per node  4. Whorled  Three or more leaf per node  From one node  Arrange in whorls node  5. Decussate  Arrange along the stem in pairs  Each pair at right angles to the pair above or below 6. Distichous  One leaf per node  Arranged in two rows  Leaves flattened from side to side, not from top to bottom Leaf shape variation 1. Acerose – Needled shaped 2. Cordate Heart shaped, with the notch at the base 3. Deltoid Shaped like a equilateral triangle  4. Elliptic Oval shape, broadest in the Middle and narrower at two Equal end (base and apex) Mangosteen Garcinia mangostana 5. Flabellate – fan shaped Ginkgo biloba 6. Lanceolate Lance/spear shape. Much longer than wide, with the widest point at the base Bamboo Bambusa sp. 7. Linear Resembling a line, long and narrow with more or less parallel side Poaceae Corn : Zea mays 8. Obcordate Inversely cordate, with the attachment at the narrower end deeply lobed apex Purple orchid tree/tapak unta Bauhinia purpurea 9. Oblong Two or four times longer than leaf width. Parallel sides Rosemary Rosmarinus officinalis 10. Oval 11. Ovate 12. Obovate 13. Orbicular 14. Sagittate Arrowhead-shaped, with the basal lobes directed downward 15. Peltate Sheild-shape: borne on a stalk attached to the lower surface rather than to the base or margin 16. Spatulate Like a spatula in shape, with round above gradually narrowing at the base Ketapang Terminalia catappa 17. Rhombic Diamond-shaped Apex variation Acuminate Acute Obtuse : Blunt or rounded at the apex Mucronate : Tipped With Short, Sharp, Abrupt Point (Cusp) Lupinus sp. Emarginate Cleft Crisped MODIFIED LEAF TENDRIL  BRACT Base of flower or flower stalk Usually for flower with no petal (apetalous) Function as leaf. Usually coloured for pollinator attractant Poinsettia – Euphorbia pulcherrima, Family : Euphorbiaceae  Leaf Flower Bract Bougainvillea sp. Insect trapping leaf Sundew Glandular hair Sundew Very small plants Round to oval leaf covered with glandular hair Sticky fluid containing digestive enzymes Fluid droplets sparkle in sun Attracts insects Fly Trap Pitcher plant – Nepenthes sp. Reproductive leaf Air plant – Kalanchoe sp. Thorn  Specialized Leaf Parts Sheath – Leaf base in Poaceae, surrounding/ wrapping the stem Auricle – a small, ear-shaped appendage  Ligule : an outgrowth or projections from the top of the sheath. Membrane appendage on the upper leaf sheath of Poaceae Epicalyx – group of leaves resembling sepals below the true calyx Family Malvaceae sepal  Trichomes A hair or hairlike outgrowth structure on the surface of the leaf epidermis. For protection and support Trichomes  Trichome shape variation Glandular Stellate/Bristle/tongue Fimbriate/hair Lepidote/Scales/Disc  Leaf Descriptions Leaves : Opposite simple, petiole 15 – 20 mm, Leaf blade, 6.5 – 9.5 cm long, 3.5–5.5 cm wide; leaf shape elliptic, apex acuminate, base cuneate; leaf texture thick and leathery, abaxial dark green and glossy, adaxial lighter green and matte; midrib prominent, secondary distinct, IMV present, tertiary vein sclariform. Garcinia mangostana L.