Positive Psychology: Introduction PDF

Positive Psychology: Introduction What is a positive (good) life? 1 Needs  We all have biological, psychological, relational and social basic needs.  A positive life fulfils all these, but also attaches us to something larger – a pursuit of fulfilment a...

Positive Psychology: Introduction What is a positive (good) life? 1 Needs  We all have biological, psychological, relational and social basic needs.  A positive life fulfils all these, but also attaches us to something larger – a pursuit of fulfilment and a meaningful life. 2  Basic needs  Biological needs – food, water, warmth, safety  Psychological needs – stimulation, activity, esteem  Relational needs – family, friendships, connection, intimacy  Social needs – stability, security, structure 3 Basic needs  basic needs may be fulfilled to a greater or lesser extent,  and the way in which they are fulfilled may differ according to individuals, communities, societies, and cultures. 4 Self-determination theory: Three fundamental human needs  Self-determination theory (SDT) is an approach to human motivation and personality that seeks to explain well- being in terms of the extent to which three fundamental and basic human needs are satisfied.  These three needs are regarded to be universal: found throughout different cultures and times (Deci & Ryan, 2000).  They are: 5 Self-determination theory: Three fundamental human needs  Autonomy: The need for a perceived internal locus of causality, we are doing things because we choose to do them, we enjoy that freedom of decision.  Competence: The need to feel that we have the ability to do what we wish to do, of the things that we choose, we are confident that we can carry them out.  Relatedness: The need for human connections that are secure, while also respecting our autonomy and facilitating our feelings of competence (see e.g. LaGuardia, Ryan, Couchman, & Deci, 2000). 6 When the basic psychological needs of relatedness, competence and autonomy are satisfied, motivation and well-being are enhanced. 7 Seligman’s view (2003)  Happiness and well-being are the desired outcomes of positive psychology. These are achieved through the positive emotions. 8 A pleasant life  A pleasant life: successfully pursuing and achieving the positive emotions of past, present and future. 9  A pleasant life  Positive emotions (past): e.g. satisfaction, contentment, pride, serenity.  Positive emotions (future): e.g. optimism, hope, confidence, trust, faith.  Positive emotions (present – bodily pleasures): e.g. scrumptiousness, warmth, orgasm.  Positive emotions (present – higher pleasures): e.g. bliss, glee, comfort. 10  A good life  A good life: using one’s strengths and virtues to obtain abundant gratification in the main realms of life (work, love, and parenting).  Gratifications: activities that we like doing and that absorb us 11  A meaningful life  A meaningful life: using one’s strengths and virtues in the service of something much larger than we are (a cause, a belief, etc.) 12 Meaning as part of a positive life A positive life is attached to something greater than itself: meaning. This gives us the reasons for doing what we do. 13  What is meaning in life?  There is no single answer to this. It is not simply that “one size fits all.”  Examples of meaning might include: ◦ Spirituality and / or religion ◦ Generativity ◦ Family and relationships ◦ Work 14 What is meaning in life?  We all have these meanings, but we may be more or less aware of them, and how they might be ranked in order of importance.  Meanings are not always mutually compatible, hence we must be prepared to sacrifice one meaning for something of greater meaning. But questions arise as to how we decide what that is. 15 What is meaning in life?  In whatever circumstances, however, we are subject to “permanent adversities” … 16 Recognising our limitations: Death, uncertainty, isolation, freedom Fundamental givens of human existence  As human beings, we all face inevitably the fundamental givens of human existence, things like death, uncertainty, isolation, freedom, meaninglessness, loss, illness, disillusionment, ageing.  A truly positive psychology does not ignore these human limitations, but instead embraces them so that life may be even more authentic. After all, where is the need for a positive psychology if we do not recognise the inescapable “negatives” of being human? 17 Recognising our limitations (1)  Irvin Yalom (1980) identified four “ultimate concerns”:  Death: As human beings, we are all destined to die. This is an inescapable fact. Yet many people live as if death is a distant occurrence that happens to someone else. If we recognise and accept death, the value of life becomes ever more pertinent. 18 Recognising our limitations (2)  Isolation: As human beings, we are all fundamentally alone. In the final analysis, no one can die in our place, nor can they genuinely die with us. We have to face death alone. This may be a depressing thought, but it encourages us to value the relationships that we do have all the more, and to recognise that they are not going to last forever. 19 Recognising our limitations (3)  Freedom: As human beings, we are all fundamentally free (but within certain parameters). However, freedom brings with it the potential problems of responsibility, choice, and decision. ◦ Responsibility = if we are free, we are responsible for our own destiny. There is no one else to blame if things go wrong. ◦ Choice = if we are free, then it is up to us to choose our destiny. But how, and at what cost? ◦ Decision = arriving at a choice, and all the problems that entails. 20 Recognising our limitations (4)  Meaninglessness: As human beings, we do not enjoy a given meaning (from an existential perspective). As such, it is up to us to create our own meaning, our own reason for living. 21 Meaning in one’s life  the role of a meaningful life in living a positive life 22 Meaning in one’s life  Yalom (1980) argues that we must all create our own meaning.  This is a point endorsed by Kekes (1995) and Camus, in his tale “The Myth of Sisyphus.” 23 Meaning in one’s life  Sisyphus was a mythical figure who was condemned to perpetually roll a large rock up a hill because he had offended the Gods. However, each time he reached the top of the hill, the rock would roll down the other side. Sisyphus would have to trudge after it and start again, ad infinitum. This went on for eternity, and yet Camus concluded that: “One must imagine Sisyphus happy.” 24 Meaning in one’s life  Some systems of meaning are easier to adopt than others, to the extent that they are pre-existing and offered to us.  For example, religious or spiritual beliefs. Or dedicating your life to your children, or to some other cause, such as charities or good works. Or even the pursuit of fame, or wealth, or notoriety! 25 Meaning in one’s life  Other systems of meaning are the result of our own creation. We find what is important to us, and spend our lives in pursuit of that. 26 Meaning in one’s life  However, we must also consider questions of VALUES and of BALANCE. ◦ How does what we do impact on others (values)? How does the pursuit of one meaningful objective impact on the pursuit of other meaningful objectives (balance)?  Quite often, meanings may be incompatible, at least to some greater or lesser extent. For example, the pursuit of wealth may be at the cost of warm relationships, or the pursuit of fame may be at the cost of spending time with one’s family. 27  The philosopher John Kekes (1995) referred to these as “permanent adversities” in the context of “the plurality of values.” 28  Another expert on meaning is Viktor Frankl (1959 / 1984).  Frankl developed a therapeutic approach that he described as “logotherapy”, that is, the therapy of meaning.  He believed that if people could discover the meaning in a situation, they could cope with any hardship. 29 Viktor Frankl on meaning in life 30  One of his most profound insights was that the last freedom, of which we as human beings could never be denied, was the freedom to choose our attitude to the circumstances in which we find ourselves.  This has enormous implications for freedom, responsibility, choice and decision. 31 Freedom, responsibility, choice, and decision  If we have freedom, then we must pay the price of responsibility.  If we have choice, then we must pay the penalty of decision. 32 …our decisions are limited by responsibility – a fundamental human limitation… 33 Barry Schwartz - Self-determination: The tyranny of freedom (2000) We have too many choices (i.e. too much freedom), this leads to three major problems.  Information problems – how can we access all information about all alternatives in order to make an informed choice?  Error problems – with more complex options, we are more likely to make errors of judgement  Psychological problems – excess choice does not appear to lead to greater psychological well-being, in fact, quite the opposite 34 Two broad classes of people:  Maximizers: People who need to get the absolute best deal and so look at all possible options  Satisficers: People who just need to get what is “good enough” for their requirements 35 The problems of maximization: More - regret, perfectionism, depression, upward social comparisons (with “better” people) Less – happiness, optimism, satisfaction with life, self-esteem 36 The problems of maximization  However, we DO NOT know about the causal nature of these relationships, i.e. does maximization cause depression, or rather does depression cause maximization? 37 The four costs of maximization  Regret – that we didn’t get the “best deal”  Opportunity costs – the costs of the options that we lost by pursuing maximization  Escalation of expectations – with more choice, we expect ever more  Self-blame – “there is no excuse for failure in a world where anything is possible” 38 What can be done?  Learn to satisfice more  Avoid upward social comparisons  Regret less  Practice gratitude  Think about the opportunity costs  Practice meta-choice: learning when to choose  Learn to love constraints 39  These are important questions because of their potential links to materialism, i.e. maximizers are potentially more materialistic, and because of the “ecological footprint” problem: if the world is to be sustainable, we need to consume less. 40 Positive psychology and a positive life  what can psychology offer about leading a positive life ?  There are no easy answers – there may be a myriad reasons why we can’t implement the changes that we would like to, but we can learn as much from thinking about why this is the case as we can from actually making the change. 41 Positive psychology and a positive life  For example, Frankl has argued that the last freedom of which man can never be denied is the freedom to choose his attitude to the circumstances in which he finds himself. ◦ Thus, whatever our situation, we still have the power to choose our attitude, as difficult as it may be to face up to the responsibility of that understanding. 42