Chapter 8: The History of Nuclear Energy PDF

Chapter 8 The history of nuclear energy NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  The rise of nuclear physics Nuclear energy – Classical physics/chemistry – Modern physics Investigations over the past 100 years 1987 – electron identified as charged particle responsible...

Chapter 8 The history of nuclear energy NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  The rise of nuclear physics Nuclear energy – Classical physics/chemistry – Modern physics Investigations over the past 100 years 1987 – electron identified as charged particle responsible for electricity 1895 – Roentgen discovered penetrating X- rays from a discharge tube NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  1896 – Becquerel discovered gamma rays from uranium, which exhibited the phenomenon of radioactivity 1905 – Einstein’s famous formula E = mc2 mass  energy Understanding of the atom and its nucleus 1919 – Rutherford: Nucleus is positive and contains most of the mass of an atom, which is surrounded by electrons. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  1930 – Bothe and Becker bombarded beryllium with alpha particles from polonium and found gamma ray, which Chadwick (1932) showed to be neutrons. 1934 – Curie and Joliot reported artificial radioactivity 1932 – Development of particle accelerators (cyclotron) NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  Discovery of Fission During the 1930’s, Enrico Fermi performed an number of experiments with the newly discovered neutron Among discoveries was the great affinity of slow neutrons for many elements and the variety of radioisotopes that could be produced by neutron capture 1936 – Breit and Wigner provided the theoretical explanation of slow neutron processes NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  Fermi made measurements of the distribution of both fast and thermal neutrons Fermi explained this behavior in terms of elastic scattering, chemical binding effects, and thermal motion of the target molecules During this time, many cross sections for neutron reactions were measured, including that of uranium, but the fission process was not yet identified NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  1939 – Hahn and Strassmann of Germany reported that they had found the element barium as a product of neutron bombardment of uranium Frish and Meitner made the guess that “fission” was responsible for the appearance of barium, which is only half as heavy as uranium that the fragments would be very energetic Fission was a term borrowed from biological sciences NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  Fermi then suggested that neutrons might be emitted during this process, and the idea was born that a chain reaction that releases a great amounts of energy might be possible The press picked up the idea, and many sensational articles were written. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  The information on fission, brought to the United States by Bohr on a visit from Denmark, prompted a flurry of activity at several universities, and by 1940 nearly a hundred papers had appeared in the technical literature. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  All of the qualitative characteristics of the chain reaction were soon learned: – the moderation of neutrons by light elements – thermal and resonance capture – the existence of fission in U-235 by thermal neutrons, – the large energy of fission fragments – the release of neutrons, and – the possibility of producing transuranic elements, those beyond uranium in the periodic table NUCLEAR ENGINEERING The development of nuclear weapons The discovery of fission, with the possibility of a chain reaction of explosive violence, was of especial importance at this particular time in history, since World War II had begun in 1939. Because of the military potential of the fission process, a voluntary censorship of publication on the subject was established by scientists in 1940. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  The studies that showed U-235 to be fissile suggested that the new element plutonium, discovered in 1941 by Seaborg, might also be fissile and thus also serve as a weapon material. As early as July 1939, four leading scientists —Szilard, Wigner, Sachs, and Einstein—had initiated contact with President Roosevelt (see Exercise 8.2), explaining the possibility of an atomic bomb based on uranium. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  As a consequence, a small grant of $6000 was made by the military to procure materials for experimental testing of the chain reaction. Before the end of World War II, a total of $2 billion had been spent, an almost inconceivable sum in those times. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  After a series of studies, reports, and policy decisions, a major effort was mounted through the United States Army Corps of Engineers under General Leslie Groves. The code name Manhattan District (or Manhattan Project) was devised, with military security mandated on all information. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  Although a great deal was known about the individual nuclear reactions, there was great uncertainty as to the practical behavior. – Could a chain reaction be achieved at all? If so, could Pu-239 in adequate quantities be produced? – Could a nuclear explosion be made to occur? – Could U-235 be separated on a large scale? NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  These questions were addressed at several institutions, and design of production plants began almost concurrently, with great impetus provided by the involvement of the United States in World War II after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  The distinct possibility that Germany was actively engaged in the development of an atomic weapon served as a strong stimulus to the work of American scientists, most of whom were in universities. They and their students dropped their normal work to enlist in some phase of the project. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  The Manhattan Project consisted of several parallel endeavors. The major effort was in the United States, with cooperation from the United Kingdom, Canada, and France NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  An experiment at the University of Chicago was crucial to the success of the Manhattan Project and also set the stage for future nuclear developments. The team under Enrico Fermi assembled blocks of graphite and embedded spheres of uranium oxide and uranium metal into what was called a pile. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  The main control rod was a wooden stick wrapped with cadmium foil. One safety rod would automatically drop on high neutron level; one was attached to a weight with a rope, ready to be cut with an axe if necessary. Containers of neutron-absorbing cadmium- salt solution were ready to be dumped on the assembly in case of emergency. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  On December 2, 1942, the system was ready. The team gathered for the key experiment, as in Figure 8.1, an artist’s recreation of the scene. Fermi calmly made calculations with his slide rule and called for the main control rod to be withdrawn in steps. The counters clicked faster and faster until it was necessary to switch to a recorder, whose pen kept climbing. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  Finally, Fermi closed his slide rule and said, “The reaction is self-sustaining.” This first man-made chain reaction gave encouragement to the possibility of producing weapons material and was the basis for the construction of several nuclear reactors at Hanford, Washington. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  By 1944, these were producing plutonium in kilogram quantities. Government production plants at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, were built in 1943. At Columbia University, the gaseous diffusion process for isotope separation was studied, forming the basis for that production system, the first units of which were built at Oak Ridge. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  At Los Alamos, New Mexico, a research laboratory was established under the direction of J. Robert Oppenheimer. Theory and experiment led to the development of the nuclear weapons, first tested at Alamogordo, New Mexico, on July 16, 1945, and later used that summer at Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  In the ensuing years the buildup of nuclear weapons continued despite efforts to achieve disarmament. The dismantlement of excess weapons will require many years. It is of some comfort, albeit small, that the existence of nuclear weapons has served for several decades as a deterrent to a direct conflict between major powers. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  The discovery of nuclear energy has a potential for the betterment of mankind through fission and fusion energy resources and through radioisotopes and their radiation for research and medical purposes. The benefits can outweigh the detriments if mankind is wise enough not to use nuclear weapons again. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  Atomic Energy Act After World War II, Congress addressed the problem of exploiting the new source of energy for peaceful purposes. The first law in the United States dealing with control of nuclear energy was the Atomic Energy Act of 1946, which was expanded in 1954. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  Issues of the times were involvement of the military, security of information, and freedom of scientists to do research (U.S. Department of Energy, 1946). NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  In the declaration of policy, the Act says, “... the development and utilization of atomic energy shall, so far as practicable, be directed toward improving the public welfare, increasing the standard of living, strengthening free competition in private enterprise, and promoting world peace.” NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  The stated purposes of the Act were to carry out that policy through both private and federal research and development (R&D), to control information and fissionable material, and to provide regular reports to Congress. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  Special mention was given to the distribution of by-product material, which includes the radioactive substances used for medical therapy and for research. The Act created the United States Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), consisting of five commissioners and a general manager. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  The AEC was given broad powers to preserve national security while advancing the nuclear field. A Joint Committee on Atomic Energy (JCAE) provided oversight for the new AEC. It included nine members each from the Senate and the House. Advice to the AEC was provided by the civilian General Advisory Committee and the Military Liaison Committee. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  The powerful AEC carried out its missions of supplying material for defense, promoting beneficial applications, and regulating uses in the interests of public health and safety. It managed some 50 sites around the United States. Seven of the sites were labeled national laboratories, each with many R&D projects under way. The AEC owned the facilities, but contractors operated them. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  For example, Union Carbide Corporation had charge of Oak Ridge National Laboratory. During the Cold War of the late 1940s and early 1950s new plutonium and enriched uranium plants were built, weapons tests were conducted in the South Pacific, and a major uranium exploration effort was begun. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  Under AEC sponsorship a successful power reactor R&D program was carried out. Both the United States and the U.S.S.R. developed the hydrogen bomb, and the nuclear arms race escalated. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  In 1974, the activities of the AEC were divided between two new agencies, the Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA) and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). In 1977, the cabinet-level Department of Energy (DOE) was formed from several other groups, including the ERDA. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  The DOE supports basic research in science and engineering and engages in energy technology development. It also manages national defense programs such as nuclear weapons design, development, and testing. The DOE operates several multiprogram laboratories and many smaller facilities around the United States. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING DOE Sites NUCLEAR ENGINEERING International Atomic Energy Agency In 1953, President Dwight Eisenhower gave a speech titled “Atoms for Peace” that had an important influence on all aspects of nuclear energy. After describing the danger of nuclear war, he proposed the formation of an Atomic Energy Agency that would be responsible for receiving contributed fissionable materials, storing them, and making them available for peaceful purposes. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  He hoped to thus prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons. In response to the speech, the United Nations established the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) through a statute ratified by the necessary number of countries in 1957. More than 130 nations support and participate in the programs administered by headquarters in Vienna. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  The objective of the IAEA is “to accelerate and enlarge the contribution of atomic energy to peace, health and prosperity throughout the world.” NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  The main functions of the IAEA are as follows: To help its members develop nuclear applications to agriculture, medicine, science, and industry. Mechanisms are conferences, expert advisor visits, publications, fellowships, and the supply of nuclear materials and equipment. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  To administer a system of international safeguards to prevent diversion of nuclear materials to military purposes. This involves the review by the IAEA of reports by individual countries on their fissionable material inventories and on-the- spot inspections of facilities. Included are reactors, fuel fabrication plants, and reprocessing facilities. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  Special emphasis is placed on isotopes and radiation. Local research on the country’s problems is encouraged. Nuclear programs sponsored by the IAEA often help strengthen basic science in developing countries, even if they are not yet ready for nuclear power. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  Such monitoring is done for countries that signed the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) of 1968 and do not have nuclear weapons. The form of the monitoring is set by agreement. If a serious violation is found, the offending nation could lose its benefits from the IAEA. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  The IAEA is one of the largest science publishers in the world because it sponsors a number of symposia on nuclear subjects each year and publishes the proceedings of each. The IAEA also promotes international rules, for example, in the area of transportation safety. Recent initiatives of the IAEA include the establishment of agreements with countries on the application of safeguards. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  A large number of seminars addressing safeguards are given each year. Annual reports on nuclear-related information are available online. Unfortunately, the IAEA has had difficulties in making inspections in certain countries (e.g., Iran and North Korea). NUCLEAR ENGINEERING Reactor Research and Development The AEC was charged with the management of the U.S. nuclear programs, including military protection and development of peaceful uses of the atom. Several national laboratories were established to continue nuclear research, including sites such as Oak Ridge, Argonne (near Chicago), Los Alamos, and Brookhaven (on Long Island). NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  A major objective was to achieve practical commercial nuclear power through research and development. Oak Ridge first studied a gas-cooled reactor and later planned a high-flux reactor fueled with highly enriched uranium alloyed with and clad with aluminum that used water as moderator and coolant. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  A reactor was eventually built at the National Reactor Testing Station in Idaho as the Materials Testing Reactor. The submarine reactor was adapted by Westinghouse Electric Corporation for use as the first commercial power plant at Shippingport, Pennsylvania. It began operation in 1957 at an electric power output of 60 MW. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  Uranium dioxide (UO2) pellets as fuel were first introduced in this pressurized water reactor (PWR) design NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  Two other reactor R&D programs were underway at Argonne over the same period. The first program was aimed at achieving power plus breeding of plutonium by use of the fast reactor concept with liquid sodium coolant. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  The first electric power from a nuclear source was produced in late 1951 in the Experimental Breeder Reactor, and the possibility of breeding was demonstrated. The second program consisted of an investigation of the possibility of allowing water in a reactor to boil and generate steam directly. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  The principal concern was with the fluctuations and instability associated with the boiling. Tests called BORAX were performed that showed that a boiling reactor could operate safely, and work progressed that led to electrical generation in 1955. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  The General Electric Company then proceeded to develop the boiling water reactor (BWR) concept further, with the first commercial reactor of this type put into operation at Dresden, Illinois, in 1960. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  On the basis of the initial success of the PWR and BWR, and with the application of commercial design and construction know- how, Westinghouse and General Electric were able, in the early 1960s,to advertise large- scale nuclear plants of power approximately 500 MWe that would be competitive with fossil fuel plants in the cost of electricity. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  Immediately thereafter, there was a rapid move on the part of the electric utilities to order nuclear plants, and the growth in the late 1960s was phenomenal. Orders for nuclear steam supply systems for the years 1965 through 1970 amounted to approximately 88,000 MWe, which was more than a third of all orders, including fossil- fueled plants. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  The corresponding nuclear electric capacity was approximately a quarter of the total United States capacity at the end of the period of rapid growth. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  After 1970, the rate of installation of nuclear plants in the United States declined, for a variety of reasons: (a) the very long time required—greater than 10 years—to design, license, and construct nuclear facilities; (b) the energy conservation measures adopted as a result of the Arab oil embargo of 1973 to 1974, which produced a lower growth rate of demand for electricity; and (c) public opposition in some areas. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  The last order for nuclear plants in the twentieth century was in 1978; a number of orders were canceled; and construction was stopped before completion on others. The total nuclear power capacity of the 103 United States reactors in operation by 2013 was 103,198 MW. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  Although nuclear plants comprise only 9.6% of the nation’s capacity, they represent almost 20% of the total net electrical generation of the country. In other parts of the world there were 330 reactors in operation with a 268,260 MW capacity. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  This large new power source was put in place in a relatively brief period of 40 years after the end of World War II. The endeavor revealed a new concept: that large-scale national technological projects could be undertaken and successfully completed by the application of large amounts of money and the organization efforts of many sectors of society. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  The nuclear project in many ways served as a model for the United States space program of the 1960s. The important lesson that the history of nuclear energy development may have for us is that urgent national and world problems can be solved by wisdom, dedication, and cooperation. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  The nuclear controversy In the 1950s, nuclear power was heralded by the AEC and the press as inexpensive, inexhaustible, and safe. Congress was highly supportive of reactor development, and the general public seemed to feel that great progress toward a better life was being made. In the 1960s, however, a series of events and trends raised public concerns and began to reverse the favorable opinion. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  First was the youth movement against authority and constraints. In that generation’s search for a simpler and more primitive or natural lifestyle, the use of wood and solar energy was preferred to energy based on the high technology of the “establishment.” Another target for opposition was the military–industrial complex, blamed for the generally unpopular Vietnam War. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  A 1980s version of the antiestablishment philosophy advocated decentralization of government and industry, favoring small, locally controlled power units based on renewable resources. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  Second was the 1960s environmental movement, which revealed the extent to which industrial pollution in general was affecting wildlife and human beings, with its related issue of the possible contaminationof air, water, and land by accidental releases of radioactivity from nuclear reactors. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  Continued revelations about the extent of improper management of hazardous chemical waste had a side effect of creating adverse opinion about radioactive wastes. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  Third was a growing loss of respect for government, with public disillusionment becoming acute as an aftermath of the Watergate affair. Concerned observers cited actions taken by the AEC or the DOE without informing or consulting those affected. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  Changes in policy about radioactive waste management from one administration to another resulted in inaction, interpreted as evidence of ignorance or ineptness. A common opinion was that no one knew what to do with the nuclear wastes. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  A fourth development was the confusion created by the sharp differences in opinion among scientists about the wisdom of developing nuclear power. Nobel Prize winners were arrayed on both sides of the argument; the public understandably could hardly fail to be confused and worried about where thetruth lay. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  The fifth was the fear of the unknown hazard represented by reactors, radioactivity, and radiation. It may be agreed that an individual has a much greater chance of dying in an automobile accident than from exposure to fallout from a reactor accident. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  But because the hazard of the roads is familiar, and believed to be within the individual’s control, it does not evoke nearly as great concern as does a nuclear event. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  The sixth was the association between nuclear power and nuclear weapons. This is in part inevitable, because both involve plutonium, use the physical process of fission with neutrons, and have radioactive by-products. On the other hand, the connection has been cultivated by opponents of nuclear power, who stress the similarities rather than the differences. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  As with any subject, there is a spectrum of opinions. At one end are the dedicated advocates, who believe nuclear power to be safe, badly needed, and capable of success only if opposition can be reduced. A large percentage of physical scientists and engineers fall in this category, believing that technical solutions for most problems are possible NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  Next are those who are technically knowledgeable but are concerned about the ability of man to avoid reactor accidents or to design and build safe waste facilities. Depending on the strength of their concerns, they may believe that consequences outweigh benefits. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  Next are average citizens who are suspicious of government and who believe in Murphy’s Law, being aware of failures such as Love Canal, Three Mile Island, Space Shuttle Challenger, Chernobyl, and Fukushima. They have been influenced as well by strong antinuclear claims and tend to be opposed to further nuclear power development, although they recognize the need for continuous electric power generation. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  At the other end of the spectrum are ardent opponents of nuclear power who actively speak, write polemics, intervene in licensing hearings, lead demonstrations, or take physical action to try to prevent power plants from coming into being. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  There are a variety of attitudes among representatives of the news and entertainment media—newspapers, magazines, radio, television, and movies—but there is an apparent tendency toward skepticism. Nuclear advocates are convinced that any incident involving reactors or radiation is given undue emphasis by the media. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  They believe that if people were adequately informed they would find nuclearpower acceptable. This view is only partially accurate for two reasons: (1)Some technically knowledgeablepeople are strongly antinuclear and (2)irrational fears cannot be removed by additional facts. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  Many people have sought to analyze the phenomenon of nuclear fear, but the study by Weart (1988) is one of the best. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  Nevertheless, in recent years there has been a growing public acceptance of nuclear power in the United States for several reasons: (a) The industry has maintained an excellent nuclear safety record through actions by utilities, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, and the Institute of Nuclear Power Operations; (b) increased awareness of energy needs, related to the continued demand for expensive and uncertain foreign oil; and (c) realization that the generation of electricity by fission does not release greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  Polls indicate that two-thirds of the public favor the construction of new nuclear plants and some communities welcome them. NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GzI2Hg9 _gO4 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-Nc0wCr kk00 https://www.youtube.com/user/IAEAvideo https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R1x-Qyu YhJw https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8kFr5zTx sUM NUCLEAR ENGINEERING  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IJsmaBq R5xM https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6IDKmE W5YT8 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f5QtBEh nPwA https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jYUP7zJ 0CwU NUCLEAR ENGINEERING