Learning Theories PDF

LEARNING Dr. Maureen Vincent 23/73 Lecture Overview What is learning? Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Other types of learning  What is Learning? Process of acquiring new and enduring information or behaviors through experience Is a relatively permanent change E...

LEARNING Dr. Maureen Vincent 23/73 Lecture Overview What is learning? Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Other types of learning  What is Learning? Process of acquiring new and enduring information or behaviors through experience Is a relatively permanent change Experience is the key to learning Much of our learning is by association - we learn that certain events occur together  How do we learn? Theory Described Type of learning 1. Classical Certain events occur together Associative Learning Conditioning 2. Operant Association between a response and Associative Learning Conditioning consequences is learned 3. Other a. Biopsychosocial Learning is the product of the interaction Biopsychosocial influences on of biological, psychological, and social- learning cultural influences b. Cognitive Acquisition of mental information that Cognitive influences Learning guides behavior c. Observational Learning by observing others Observation Learning i. Association We learn by association Our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence We learn that two events occur together e.g. Classical Conditioning  i. Association What do you associate this green man with? Learn to associate two events CLASSICAL CONDITIONING  Classical Conditioning (type of associative learning) Developed by Pavlov (Russian physiologist) Demonstrated associative learning (classical conditioning) via a very famous experiment on salivary conditioning Prior to experiment: Knew that when you put food in your mouth, you produce saliva to help break down the food so it can be swallowed Classical Conditioning (type of associative learning) Pavlov also noticed that a dog salivated not only when food was put in a dog’s mouth (expected) but: At the mere sight of food Food dish Presence of person who feed the dog Sound of their footsteps Pavlov wanted to test the idea that the dog had LEARNT to associate the above with the presentation of the actual food (hence why the dog started salivating) Pavlov’s Experiment Classical Conditioning Experiment When you put food on dog’s tongue = salivation (inherited reflex – a quick automatic and natural response to a stimulus) – it is NOT learned Note: The above is an example of respondent behavior – when there is an automatic and natural response to a stimuli e.g. When a dog is food, they naturally begin to salivate. This behavior is not learned! It happens naturally! It's unconditioned (not learnt) When you ring a bell (neutral stimulus) = no salivation 1st Phase  2nd Phase Classical Conditioning Experiment Ring the bell Less than a second later, food is placed in the dog’s mouth And the dog salivates Repeat the pairing several times i.e. the tone followed by the foods  Ring the bell And even though NO food was presented The dog salivates Classical Means: The dog had learnt that the tone of the bell signaled that food was coming Conditioning Experiment The dog has LEARNT to associate the sound of the bell with the food Classical conditioning is a form of 3rd Phase associative learning  Neutral stimulus (NS) - a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning Unconditioned response (UR) - an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth) Classical Unconditioned stimulus (US) - a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers an Conditioning unconditioned response (UR) Concepts Conditioned response (CR) - a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS) Conditioned stimulus (CS) - an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR) YOU DO NOT NEED TO KNOW THESE DEFINITIONS FOR THE EXAM Using the correct terminology for Pavlov’s Experiment – need to know this for the exam Important to Unconditioned Conditioned Stimulus leads For e.g. If A remember: = No learning = Learning has to the (stimulus) has taken place taken place response occurs then B (response) will happen  Pavlov’s Experiment Always the same answer Stage 1: Unconditional Unconditioned Stimulus Unconditioned Response Before learning takes place UCS UCR Before experiment Food Salivation What was happening Stage 2 Neutral Stimulus Unconditioned stimulus Unconditioned Response During the experiment NS UCS UCR What is happening Tone Food Salivation Stage 3: Conditional Conditioned Stimulus Conditioned Response After experiment – what we found CS CR What we have learnt Tone Salivation NS  Example of Classical Conditioning UCS UCR Drug Nausea NS then UCS UCR Waiting room drug Nausea CS CR Waiting room Nausea  Exam Practice Roger goes to a restaurant and orders seafood The seafood was contaminated and as a result Roger suffered a bad case of food poisoning and vomited Now whenever Roger sees or smells seafood, he feels very nauseous Identify the UCS, UCR, CS and CR Example: What is the UCS, UCR, CS and CR? 1. Work out what the response is (answer MUST always be the same for UCR and CR) 2. What was happening BEFORE (before learning took place)? UCS UCR 3. What happens in future (learning as taken place) CS CR Label the diagram (UCS, UCR, NS, CS, CR)  Concept Answer Unconditioned Contamination (of the Stimulus seafood) Exam Unconditioned Vomit Practice: Response Answers Conditioned Sight/smell of seafood Stimulus Conditioned Vomit Response Would Classical Conditioning work in Humans? Little Albert Experiment Summary Watson and Raynor presented Little Albert with a white rat and he showed no fear. Watson then presented the rat with a loud bang (hitting metal pipes) that startled Little Albert and made him cry. After the continuous association of the white rat and loud noise, Little Albert was classically conditioned to Albert's fear generalized to other stimuli experience fear at the sight of the rat. that were similar to the rat, including a fur coat, some cotton wool, and a Father Christmas mask Little Albert Experiment John Watson (1920’s)  4 principles of Classical Conditioning 1. EXTINCTION Extinction – After conditioning, when a conditioned stimulus (CS: tone) is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS: food) Extinction is the disappearance of a previously learned behavior when the behavior is not reinforced  Ok, so let’s go back to Pavlov’s classical Conditioning experiment So we have conditioned the dog to salivate to the sound of the bell only………  EXTINCTION: Pavlov’s Experiment 1. But what if Pavlov then decides to stop giving food to the dog after ringing the bell. 2. Well, eventually, the dogs will stop associating the ringing bell with food. 3. As a result, the dogs would no longer salivate (response) to the ringing of the ringing bell (stimulus). Pavlov called this extinction because the association (bell and salivation) was no longer present. EXTINCTION EXAMPLE Say you experience fear to a place (e.g. lecture theatre) as something distressing occurred there (e.g. assault) extinction can occur if you go back to that place (lecture theatre) many times and nothing bad happens again Then your fear will become extinct You can go to that place (lecture theatre) without having any physical reaction to it (fear) 2. SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY  Spontaneous Recovery Spontaneous recovery – After a response disappears (salivation), it may spontaneously reappear Pavlov’s Experiment: However, if you ring the bell the next day – the dog might salivate. It is spontaneous it refers to the re-emergence of a Reasons remain unclear – although some previously extinguished conditioned response argue that maybe learning is never truly after a delay unlearnt EXAMPLE of SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY IN HUMANS: TRAUMATIC MEMORIES Research: Traumatic memories can occur spontaneously many years later  There are various things which can lead to the return of traumatic memories overhearing a certain conversation hearing a song lyric which brings back an unpleasant memory a certain smell There is no precise reason for the return of traumatic memories but indicates that the person needs help Traumatic memories can prompt spontaneous recoveries which override prior classical conditioning 3. Stimulus Generalisation Stimulus Generalisation Tendency for similar stimuli to produce the same response Pavlov’s Experiment: Dog salivates to a low- pitched bell, but will also salivate to a high-pitched bell as well e.g. a dog conditioned to salivate when rubbed, would also salivate when scratched and patted = STIMULUS GENERALISATION e.g. if a child is afraid of moving cars, he may also become afraid of trucks and motorbikes Generalization can be adaptive  For example - a child who gets bitten by black dog, may later become afraid of all dogs The original fear evoked by the Black dog has now generalized to ALL dogs Stimulus Generalization - a response to a specific stimulus becomes associated to other stimuli (similar stimuli) and now occurs to those other similar stimuli STIMULUS GENERALIZATION?  Remember Little Albert (John Watson): After conditioning, the sight of a white rat made Albert scream in fear Then Albert began to show similar terrified behaviors to Watson's face What Watson realized was that Albert was responding to the white beard Watson he had at the time. So, the fear evoked by the white, furry, rabbit, had generalized to other white, furry things, like Watson's beard  4. STIMULUS DISCRIMINATION It involves the ability to distinguish between one stimulus and similar stimuli Basically, it means responding only to certain stimuli, and not responding to those that are similar Stimulus Discrimination Respond differently to stimuli that are not similar to each other Slightly different stimuli can be followed by vastly different consequences EXAMPLE: Confronted by a guard dog = fear But confronted by a guide dog = no fear Being able to recognize differences is adaptive  Stimulus Discrimination 2. Operant Conditioning (Instrumental Conditioning)  Operant Conditioning 2nd type of learning – type of associative learning People associate behaviors with their consequences - Learning is based on consequences A type of learning in which behavior is: 1. Strengthened if reinforced (behavior will occur again) More likely to repeat a behavior if it is rewarded 2. Diminished if punished (behavior will not occur again) Less likely to repeat a behavior if it is punished Operant Conditioning Everyday behaviours are continually reinforced and shaped Reinforcement: Any event that strengthens a preceding response (that is, the desired behavior will happen again)  A reinforcer is any event that increases the frequency of a preceding response (that the behavior will occur again) There are 6 types of reinforcers: Positive Negative Primary Secondary Immediate Operant Conditioning Delayed a. Positive Reinforcer Strengthens a response by presenting a pleasurable stimulus immediately after a response – if you do X, I will give you Y Examples: if you get 100% in Psychology, I will buy you a car do your homework, I will give you $20 Positive reinforcers: Attention (children love attention) Money Approval (well done, great job, excellent)  a. Positive Reinforcer A positive reinforcer may also be an activity: For example: Once the dishes are washed, you can use the car If you study for an hour, you can watch TV for 1/2 hour If you help wash the dishes, you can play fortnite The person must value the reinforcer for positive reinforcement to work  b. Negative Reinforcer Strengthens a response by reducing or removing an aversive (negative) stimulus Basically, the person doesn’t have to do something they dislike = so this becomes a reward Tell child if they eat some vegetables then he/she will not have Child does NOT want to clean their room to eat vegetables (something they hate doing)  Do not confuse negative reinforcement with punishment Punishment aims to decrease a behaviour A reinforcer is any consequence that strengthens a behaviour - whether by giving something positive or b. Negative Reinforcer removing something negative  3. Primary Reinforcers Primary Reinforcers Are innate (biological); are unlearned Rewards that everyone enjoys Include: Food and water Shelter Sex Being relieved of an electric shock c. Conditioned (or Secondary) Reinforcers Conditioned Reinforcers Are learned Include: Good grades Money Praise Tone of voice d and e: Immediate and delayed reinforcers d. Immediate Reinforcers Occurs immediately after a behaviour e. Delayed Reinforcers Involves time delay between desired response of and delivery of reward e.g. Good grades at the end of the semester e.g. get paid at the end of the month  Skinner’s Experiment: Shaping Skinner Designed and used the Skinner box for experiments and recorded responses A Skinner box Inside the box, the rat presses a bar Shaping: Gradually guiding for a food reward. Outside, a toward closer and closer measuring device (not shown approximations of the desired above) records the animal’s behaviour accumulated responses  Skinner’s experiment: Shaping Skinner: Trained rats to press To achieve a desired behavior, the lever reward step by step approximations First rewarded: close proximity to the desired behavior by giving to the bar rewards (positive reinforcement) Then any interaction with the along the way lever Then actual pressing of the Shaping is a technique to establish lever a new behavior Skinner’s experiment: Shaping Shaping is used when rewards need to be gradual until the desired goal is reached Rewards are given in steps until the final desired behaviour is reached. E.g. Learning an instrument or a new language.  Reinforcement increases a behaviour; punishment does the opposite Punishment: An undesirable consequence or withdraws something desirable in an attempt to decrease the frequency of a behaviour E.g. A parent may make a child wash his mouth out with soap if he swears Punishment  2 Types of Punishment TYPE OF PUNISHER DESCRIPTION EXAMPLES Positive punishment Administer an To stop the dog barking, you spray it with aversive (bad) water (which it hates) stimulus To stop speeding behavior, the police will give you a fine for speeding Negative punishment Withdraw a Take away the driving privileges (which rewarding stimulus they enjoy) of a teenager for misbehaving Don’t allow a person to go onto a chat site (which they enjoy) because they have been rude. Other theories…….  Conditioning principles do not tell us the whole story about how we learn Learning is the product of the interaction of biological, psychological, and social- cultural influences Called the biopsychosocial i. Biopsychosocial influences on learning Influences i. Biopsychosocial Influences ii. Cognitive Influences on Learning Cognitive Map (Tolman)– are mental representation of one’s environment/ physical locations. Humans and animals use them to find their way and to help recall important features of the environment Example: Knowing your way around Trinity Latent Learning (Tolman)- learning that occurs, but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it E.g. a child might learn how to complete a math problem in class, but this is not immediately apparent. Only when the child is offered some form of reinforcement for completing the problem does this learning reveal itself  Observational learning (called modelling, imitation) learn by watching and imitating others no direct instruction, formal or learning experience E.g. You know how to open a door even though no one (Social Learning Theory) formally taught you. Why? You observed this behaviour throughout childhood iii. Learning by Observation Bandura - Pioneer of observational learning – what (modelling, imitation) you see, you do. Bobo doll experiment iii. Learning by Observation: Bandura Bandura’s Experiment Adults played violently in a room with toys while children look on. Adults hit, kick and threw a large BoBo doll around the room. Yelling “sock him in the nose”, “hit him down”, “kick him”. Child are then taken into another room to play with toys and behaviour is observed  iii. Learning by Observation: Bandura Results: Bandura’s Experiment Children will react in a similar way to what they have observed If children observe adult aggressive behaviour, they are more likely to behave the same iii. Bandura: Famous Bobo Doll Experiment  Applications of Observational Learning Prosocial effects Modelling appropriate and nonviolent behaviour will promote similar behaviour in others Antisocial effects If you don’t have a good role model e.g. abusive parents may have aggressive children Watching TV and videos may teach children inappropriate attitudes and behaviours such as Bullying is ok Unprotected sex has few later consequences Men should be tough; women should be gentle This is known as “violence-viewing effect” LEARNING THE END