01 Module Outline.pdf

SELF FROM VARIOUS PERSPECTIVES outlined by: JGCL WHO ARE YOU? Most of us have been asked this question many times: when meeting a new person, introducing ourselves in class, or staring at the mirror and not quite recognizing who you see. Our answer to...

SELF FROM VARIOUS PERSPECTIVES outlined by: JGCL WHO ARE YOU? Most of us have been asked this question many times: when meeting a new person, introducing ourselves in class, or staring at the mirror and not quite recognizing who you see. Our answer to this question varies with multiple factors: proof that the self is as complex as the number of perspectives which attempt to explain it. In this module, we will talk about how different fields try to shed light into the beautiful enigma that is 'the self'. PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES Philosophers were perhaps the first to attempt to explain what makes the 'self'. While philosophers have different opinions and theories about the topic, most of them agree (at least, to some extent) with the age-old proposition of THE MIND-BODY DUALITY. THE MIND THE BODY Is a metaphysical object, consisting of Is a physical object, consisting of spiritual essence physical material Exists in the metaphysical world Exists and interacts with the physical A perfect soul contained in the body world There is a truth within our thoughts that An imperfect body constitute the self, and we must seek Senses the world around it, but these to discover it senses are deceptive and must not be thought of as truth SOCRATES - Believed that the true self is 'the soul' or the rational part of ourselves Believed that the self consists of body and soul, the soul being the 'true self': unchanging and immortal To care for the self, we must know the self The true self is knowable through questioning, now known as the 'Socratic method' The body, although a part of the self, is only a receptacle of the soul PLATO - A student of Socrates; expanded the concept of 'the soul' as having three parts Humans are rational (i.e., we think and are conscious), and this must be the 'self' which sets us apart from animals Our intellect constitutes our true self  GEC101 - SELF FROM VARIOUS PERSPECTIVES PLATO (contd.) The three-part self (i.e., soul): Reason - the rational part of the self; part of the self that knows reality; makes decisions Appetite - irrational and instinctive part of the self; our basic physical needs such as hunger, thirst, and sex Spirit - our emotions such as anger, love, empathy The three parts are dynamic and interact with each other. It is likened to a chariot pulled by two winged horses, where the charioteer is the reason, while the two horses are appetite and spirit Reason (i.e., charioteer) must be able to control the horses (i.e., appetite and spirit) and achieve harmony Has similarities with Sigmund Freud's view of the structures of the mind AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO - the true self is our within our mind, which is capable of consciousness; by knowing ourselves, we are able to know God We are like animals in that we are able to perceive the physical world, but higher than animals as we are aware of ourselves This inner knowledge of our existence must consist the true self Like Socrates and Plato, he believed that we have an inner knowledge (i.e., truth) which we must seek out in order to know the self We can know ourselves through interiority (i.e., the Socratic method of questioning) But he did not agree that the self is the mind ONLY; he believed that the self is both body and soul, which is united just like the Trinity is united As man is made in the image and likeness of God, knowing the self leads us to know God RENE DESCARTES - Father of Modern Philosophy; formally proposed the mind-body dualism Like his predecessors, he believed that the true self is within the soul, and we must discover it through scientific inquiry and scientific method Because we are capable of doubting our own existence, it must mean that we are capable of thinking; because we are capable of thinking, we must exist "Dubito ergo cogito, cogito ergo sum." To have beliefs about the self, one must doubt their beliefs until they are capable of achieving beliefs that are their own (not one provided to them by authorities) Subscribed to Augustine's proposition that while the true self is within the mind, this does not mean that the body is not part of the self It only means that the body is secondary to the mind, but is still a distinct dimension of the self The mind and the body are intermingling and united At the Pineal Gland (which, we know now as the gland in the brain which produces some hormones, such as melatonin) JOHN LOCKE - 'Tabula rasa' or blank slate; Our consciousness is the self, giving us a sense of continuity over time Disputed the idea that we have an inner knowledge which we were born with  GEC101 - SELF FROM VARIOUS PERSPECTIVES LOCKE (contd.) This consciousness gives the continuity/stability that establishes the self However, the self is not something we are born with; rather it is developed through experience We are born as blank slates (tabula rasa) with no consciousness, and therefore with no self yet. As we gain experience, we discover the self through our consciousness; this consciousness links our past selves with our present (and future) selves, giving us continuity and stability of self While other philosophers thought of the self as the immortal soul and made of spiritual essence, Locke believed that the self can be anything that has consciousness So, if your finger was cut off but it still regains a consciousness, then your mutilated finger is still you! DAVID HUME - There is no self Humans perceive two things: impressions, which are our basic sensations of experience such as happiness, pain, cold, grief; and ideas, which are copies of impressions stored in the mind In order for the 'self' to exist as a 'constant and invariable' idea, our impressions of the self must also be constant and invariable. However, our impressions of the self a fleeting and variable (e.g., no two experiences of grief are the same). Therefore, it is logical to assume that there is no such as thing as the idea of an unchanging self. When we die, we cease to exist. As such, there is no soul containing the self that will continue to linger on Earth. Thus, there is no self. The self is an idea, the amalgamation of different impressions over time which we collectively designate as 'the self'. IMMANUEL KANT - The self is the thread which binds our experiences of 'self' together in a 'unity of consciousness' Criticized Hume's nihilistic view of the non-existence of the self, saying that it is dangerous to think of the mind as merely a receptacle of fleeting impressions and ideas We are able to organize what Hume called 'fleeting and variable' impressions and ideas, and at the center of these organized perceptions is the conscious self Like Locke, he believed in the connected unity of consciousness; but he did not agree that we are blank slates; rather we have existing knowledge (i.e., a priori knowledge) which we use to make sense and organize our perceptions Transcendental self - the organizing principle of self; the a priori knowledge Empirical self - the conscious self or ego; posteriori knowledge Without the self, we will be unable to make sense of our perceptions and sensations This 'unity of consciousness' gives the self its consistency over time GILBERT RYLE - The self is best understood as the pattern of behavior, the tendency or disposition for a person to behave in a certain way Subscribed to the main tenets of behaviorism  GEC101 - SELF FROM VARIOUS PERSPECTIVES RYLE (contd.) Did not believe the existence of a metaphysical sense which cannot be objectively observed and measured Also criticized dualism - if the mind and body are separate, how are they connected? Where do they intersect? How do they mingle? Since the mind is not observable, it is impossible to prove its existence (or the existence of others' minds) Focused instead on observable behaviors. The self must be viewed in terms of the behavior we present to the world. The 'mind' is the concept that expresses the entire system of thoughts, emotions, actions, etc. that makes up the human self EDMUND HUSSERL & MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY - The self is experienced subjectively, not known objectively Espoused Phenomenology - which proposes that all knowledge of ourselves and our world is based on the phenomena of personal experience Fully rejects dualism as it views the self as the experience of the unity between the mental and the physical The self is embodied in subjective experiences, rather than objective behaviors Thus, in order to know the self, we must live it. The self is a lived experience. If you have not lived, you have not known self. PAUL CHURCHLAND - The self is a series of neurological phenomena which can be observed in the brain The self is the brain (i.e., congruent with materialism). Materialists believe that mental states or experiences of the self can be explained in terms of physical brain states. To explain the self, we must be grounded on neuroscience. PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES As society developed, so did the sciences. Philosophers began to study the self as being centered in the 'mind' or the 'brain'. At the same time, Psychology was rising as a field on its own, which focused on investigating these topics as a cognitive construction. Psychology's inquiry focused on internal cognitions and asked questions such as: 1. What can make an effective self? Happy self? Etc. 2. How does the self know itself (consciousness)? 3. What cognitive processes are involved in forming the self? SIGMUND FREUD - The self has conscious and unconscious parts. As the Father of Psychoanalysis, Freud espoused that the self is part conscious (i.e., aware) and unconscious (i.e., unaware).  GEC101 - SELF FROM VARIOUS PERSPECTIVES FREUD (contd.) The conscious part of the self includes mental processes which we are aware of. The unconscious part of the self are those parts which are not easily accessible to our awareness. These conscious and unconscious parts of the self are unified in the 'ego'. Later on, Freud expounded on his idea by formulating a structure of the mind, which consisted of the ego, id, and the superego Ego - reality principle; is directly in contact with reality and strives to balance out the demands of the Id and the Superego Id - pleasure principle; the unconscious part of the mind; strives to get maximum pleasure by pursuing instinctual needs (e.g., hunger, thirst, sex) Superego - moralistic principle; both conscious and unconscious; the superego impinges upon the ego with its moralistic demands and should's WILLIAM JAMES - The self is a cognitive construction Was more concerned with the function rather than the structure of the mind Father of the Functionalist School of Thought and of American Psychology He viewed the self in terms of 'I' and 'Me'. I-Self (the knower) - is the subjective self which does everything in the here and know. It is the conscious part of the self and gives you the sense of who you are Me-Self (the known) - is the objective self and the repository of all experiences: past, present, and future. The Me-Self is the expressed self and is composed of material, social, and spiritual aspects. As the I-Self evaluates the Me-Self and all its components, it develops our self-esteem Self-esteem is our overall evaluation of ourselves. This gives us the feeling of 'I like (this part of) myself.' For James, a realistic view of self and one's aspirations is important in order to have positive feelings about oneself. The problem occurs when one's ideal self turns into an idealistic and unrealistic MUST SELF (i.e., I must be a good student; I must provide for my family). As proactive and agentic humans, we are capable of controlling our behavior towards more achievable goals, leading to more positive views of the self. Self-regulation - our ability to control our behaviors towards goals which are more likely to result in positive experiences and rewards By regulating our behaviors and adjusting our goals into more realistic and achievable ones, we increase our self-efficacy. Increased self-efficacy can have profound effects on our self-esteem (although this is not necessarily a cause-and-effect relationship). Self-efficacy - our beliefs about our capabilities to achieve a goal  GEC101 - SELF FROM VARIOUS PERSPECTIVES SOCIOLOGICAL/ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES Most of the philosophical/psychological perspectives of the self view humans as isolated individuals who gain a sense of self on their own, either through self-exploration or interacting with the empirical world. However, it is also true that the self does not exist in a vacuum. Thus, Sociological/Anthropological views of the self emphasize that the self must not be viewed in isolation, but must be seen as part of a larger society, culture, and societal values. SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE The self is a product of how the people interact with society at large. Only when one has participated in different social positions and learn from those experiences can we be self- conscious. ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE The self is differently conceptualized across cultures (e.g., Western/Eastern Orientations). How we view the self begins and ends with the group we are in. GEORGE HERBERT MEAD - The self is a sociological construction Mead, a sociologist, viewed the self to be constructed through the process of socialization, where we learn to be self-conscious (i.e., aware of how people see us and the roles that we play). As children, we were not conscious yet because we do not consider how other people (i.e. society) view us. We are egocentric. But as we interact with other people and take on other roles (e.g., playing the role of a mom or doctor at play), we become aware of perspectives which are not our own. With this, we also become conscious that other people are perceiving us differently whenever we interact with them. Here, we are able to distinguish between the I and the Me. Mead conceptualized the I-Me self in terms of social interaction; wherein the 'Me' is how others see the self, and the 'I' is the personal (i.e., subjective) assessment of the social self. To Mead, there must be a balance between the I and the Me. W. JAMES' ME-SELF G.H. MEAD'S ME-SELF The self is a product of cognition (i.e., The self is a product of social the mind) interaction and role-taking The Me-Self is an object of awareness, The Me-Self is the sum of all perceived of the total experiences of the 'I', perceptions others have of the self having material, social, and spiritual (i.e., the generalized other) components  GEC101 - SELF FROM VARIOUS PERSPECTIVES THE CONCEPT OF SELF VARIES WITH CULTURE Markus & Kitayama (1991) pointed out that the primary method in which cultural values influence psychological processes is in terms of how individuals define and see their 'selves' in relation to others in their social network. That is, our concept of self is relative to how we construe ourselves within our group. CONFUCIUS - The Eastern/Oriental View of Self Many of the previous perspectives on the self have been influenced by the philosophy of seeking personal independence, and have spread throughout the Western parts of the world (e.g., The US, UK). Thus, the concept of the self is seen as a separate whole among other wholes in society. In the Eastern Hemisphere, other philosophies were more prevalent than others. These philosophies espoused a more interrelated conceptualization of the self. For Eastern Societies, the self is seen as an emerging concept from a combined set of multiple identities. Confucius, one of the most prominent philosophers in the East, laid out the Chinese philosophy which defined the self in terms of cardinal relationships (e.g., ruler-minister, father-son, etc.) nurtured by reciprocity, interdependence, and interrelatedness. This philosophy eventually spread throughout the Eastern parts, influencing societies and cultures within it. Confucian philosophy focuses on relational identity as defined by significant relationships. That is, not all relationships impinge upon our self-view, but only those which we consider significant. Most often, this self-view is influenced by societal values and expectation. SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIVIDUALIST AND COLLECTIVIST CULTURES INDIVIDUALIST CULTURES COLLECTIVIST CULTURES Fosters independence and individual Fosters interdependence and group achievement success Promotes self-expression, individual Promotes adherence to norms, respect thinking, and personal choice for authority/elders, and group Associated with egalitarian consensus relationships and flexibility in roles Associated with stable, hierarchical Associated with private property and roles individual ownership Associated with shared property and group ownership  GEC101 - SELF FROM VARIOUS PERSPECTIVES SUMMATIVE STATEMENTS By now, we have a general (but hardly comprehensive) view of the self. Knowing these perspectives, it is not surprising why some people think that the self is complicated: it's because it is! Our personality and identity is thrown into a background of multiple shades and colors which cannot be fully appreciated if we only look at it through the scope of one field of study. And perhaps, the reason why the self is still much of a mystery up to now is because it is just that complicated. However, it is safe to say this about the self: it is a complex and multifaceted aspect of human beings defined by ourselves, others, and the environment, which is needed to be a fully functioning human. ADDITIONAL READINGS AND RESOURCES READINGS Cada, P.B., Echavez, N.Q., Escalona, O.M.D., Maranda, A.G., Palomares, P., Rodil, S.S., & Sansona, A.Z.B. (2019). Understanding the Self, Work-Text Compilation. Chafee, J. (2013). Who are you? Consciousness, Identity, and the Self. In the Philosopher's Way: Thinking Critically about Profound Ideas. Pearson. 106-169. Retrieved from: https://www.pearsonhighered.com/assets/samplechapter/0/2/0/5/020577699X.pdf. Edwardes, M.P.J. (2019). The Origins of the Self: An Anthropological Perspective. UCLPress. Retrieved from: https://www.uclpress.co.uk/products/125998 WEB SOURCES https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mead/ https://batch.libretexts.org/print/url=https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Sociology/B ook%3A_Sociology_(Boundless)/04%3A_The_Role_of_Socialization/4.02%3A_The_Self_and_ Socialization/4.2B%3A_Sociological_Theories_of_the_Self.pdf https://www.verywellmind.com/what-are-individualistic-cultures-2795273 https://www.verywellmind.com/what-are-collectivistic-cultures-2794962 VIDEO SOURCES https://www.ted.com/talks/julian_baggini_is_there_a_real_you?language=en https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oMNaQjtXSGc