Untitled Quiz

Reasons for Research

• Helps to understand problems and phenomena.
• Facilitates knowledge transfer.
• Examines aspects of an issue in detail.
• Promotes good practices and facilitates change.
• Finds answers to theoretical questions.
• Provides policy suggestions and encourages social innovation.

Research Questions

• A well-defined research question is crucial for guiding your study.
• It defines the scope and direction of your research, shaping what you investigate.

Types of Research

• Pure Research: Focuses on theoretical understanding and knowledge development.
  • Aim: Descriptive
  • Enquiry Mode: Mixed Methods
• Applied Research: Focuses on practical applications and solving real-world problems.
  • Aim: Exploratory, Correlational, Explanatory
  • Enquiry Mode: Quantitative, Qualitative

Pure Research

• Develops and tests theories and hypotheses.
• Examines research methods, procedures, techniques, and tools, refining research methodology.
• May or may not have immediate practical applications.
• Focuses on aspects like sampling methods, instrument design, and validity.

Applied Research

• Uses research methods, procedures, and techniques to gather information for evidence-based decision-making.
• Aims to formulate policy and enhance understanding of phenomena.

Descriptive Study

• Describes the prevalence of a situation, problem, phenomenon, service, or program.

Correlational Study

• Discovers relationships between two or more aspects of a situation.

Explanatory Research

• Explains why and how phenomena occur, focusing on causal relationships.

Exploratory Research

• Investigates the potential for undertaking a research study, exploring possibilities and generating research questions.

Quantitative Approach

• Relies on numerical data, measurement, and large sample sizes.
• Emphasizes objectivity and structured procedures.
• Prioritizes validity and reliability of data collection.

Qualitative Approach

• Focuses on in-depth understanding, descriptive accounts, and smaller sample sizes.
• Employs flexible strategies and explores variations in issues.
• Prioritizes validity and reliability of observations and interpretations.

Mixed Methods Approach

• Combines qualitative and quantitative approaches to provide a comprehensive understanding of a phenomenon.

Convergent Design (Mixed Methods)

• Collects and analyses both quantitative and qualitative data simultaneously.
• Compares and relates the findings from both approaches.
• Provides a holistic interpretation.

Explanatory Sequential Design (Mixed Methods)

• First, collects and analyses quantitative data.
• Then, uses qualitative data to further explore and explain the quantitative findings.
• Provides a deeper understanding of the relationships between variables.

Function of Literature Review

• Reviews existing research on a specific topic.
• Organizes findings around key themes.
• Presents themes in a logical and coherent manner.
• Compares and notes similarities and differences between findings.

How to Read a Literature Review

• Understand the primary themes and how the findings are structured.
• Evaluate the logical flow of arguments and evidence.

Writing a Literature Review

• Organizes information thematically.
• Follows a logical order of presentation.
• Supports arguments with evidence from existing literature.
• Refers to sources using an academic referencing style.

Literature Summary vs. Review

• Summary: Presents a brief overview of a topic or study without in-depth analysis or interpretation.
• Review: Offers a critical analysis of existing literature, organized thematically with logical ordering of arguments.

Research Proposal - APA

• A research proposal outlines the research plan, including the research question, hypothesis, methodology, and anticipated outcomes.
• Follows APA style guidelines for formatting and referencing.

Selecting a Research Subject

• Focus on control group and experimental group similarities for more reliable results.

Covariation

• Describes the relationship between two variables.
• Positive Correlation: Variables increase or decrease together.
• Negative Correlation: One variable increases while the other decreases.
• No Correlation: Variables show no relationship.

Spurious Relationship

• Appears to be a causal relationship between two variables but is not genuine, often influenced by a third variable.
• Cause: Independent Variable (the factor that potentially influences another variable).
• Effect/Outcome: Dependent Variable (the variable that is potentially influenced by another variable).
• Other Factors: Confounding Variable (a third variable that influences the perceived relationship between the independent and dependent variables).

Experiments

• Used to investigate cause-and-effect relationships in a controlled environment.
• Commonly used in scientific research and non-scientific human inquiry.
• Ideal for testing hypotheses and determining causation.
• Can be conducted in laboratories, online, or in real-world settings.

Classical Experiment

• Examines the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable.
• Introduces an experimental stimulus (present or absent), representing the independent variable.
• Uses operational definitions for both independent and dependent variables.
• Measures the dependent variable before and after exposure to the stimulus.

Experimental & Control Group

• Experimental Group: Subjects receive the experimental stimulus.
• Control Group: Subjects do not receive the experimental stimulus but are similar to the experimental group in other respects.
• Comparison of both groups at the end allows for determining the effect of the experimental stimulus..

Treatment Effect

• The difference in the outcome between the experimental and control groups after exposure to the treatment.

Placebo Effect

• Participants experience a genuine improvement in their condition after receiving a fake treatment, demonstrating the power of belief and expectation.

Considerations Without a Control Group

• Difficult to establish cause-and-effect relationships due to potential confounding variables.
• Makes it challenging to draw reliable conclusions.

Aims of Experiments

• Test hypotheses.
• Establish causal relationships between variables.
• Understand underlying mechanisms of phenomena.

Reliability

• The consistency of research findings when repeated observations or measurements are taken.
• Ensures that results are not due to random chance.

Validity

• The extent to which a measurement accurately reflects the concept it intends to measure.

Internal Validity

• Indicates whether a research procedure demonstrates a real cause-and-effect relationship between variables.

Internal Invalidity

• Indicates potential biases or flaws in the research design that may lead to inaccurate conclusions.
• Sources: History (external events affecting outcome), Testing (repeated testing affecting results).

External Validity

• Indicates whether the results of a study can be generalized to other populations, times, or settings.
• Sources: Participant characteristics, time of study, and specific study setting.

Problems with Validity & Reliability

• Threaten the credibility of research findings.

Randomization

• Assigning subjects to experimental and control groups randomly to eliminate bias and ensure representative sampling.

Closed-Ended Questions (e.g., Multiple Choice)

• Advantages: Easy to answer and analyse.
• Disadvantages: Limited information depth and variety, potential for bias, may not reflect true opinions.

Open-Ended Questions

• Advantages: Allow for in-depth and varied information, reduce investigator bias.
• Disadvantages: Challenging to analyze, potential for information loss if respondents cannot express themselves, possible interviewer bias.

Types of Survey Methods

• Self-Administered Questionnaires: Respondents complete questionnaires independently. (Mail survey, home delivery).
• Interview Surveys: Interviewers ask respondents questions orally and record answers.