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Questions and Answers
What is the primary mechanism by which cortisol increases glucose levels?
What is the primary mechanism by which cortisol increases glucose levels?
- Increasing glucose absorption in the intestines
- Increasing gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis (correct)
- Increasing insulin secretion
- Increasing glycogenesis
How does cortisol antagonize the effects of insulin on glucose metabolism?
How does cortisol antagonize the effects of insulin on glucose metabolism?
- By enhancing insulin's effects on glucose metabolism
- By increasing glucose uptake in peripheral tissues
- By stimulating insulin secretion
- By inhibiting insulin's inhibitory effects on gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis (correct)
What is the primary substrate used for gluconeogenesis under the influence of cortisol?
What is the primary substrate used for gluconeogenesis under the influence of cortisol?
- Glycogen and Glycerol
- Glucose and Amino Acids
- Ketones and Glycerol
- Amino acids and Glycerol (correct)
How does cortisol impact the immune system?
How does cortisol impact the immune system?
What is the effect of cortisol on the reproductive system?
What is the effect of cortisol on the reproductive system?
How does cortisol impact the cardiovascular system?
How does cortisol impact the cardiovascular system?
What is the impact of cortisol on growth?
What is the impact of cortisol on growth?
What is the significance of the zona reticularis in the adrenal gland?
What is the significance of the zona reticularis in the adrenal gland?
Which receptor is responsible for vasoconstriction and increased peripheral resistance?
Which receptor is responsible for vasoconstriction and increased peripheral resistance?
Which of the following is a direct effect of catecholamines binding to beta 1 receptors?
Which of the following is a direct effect of catecholamines binding to beta 1 receptors?
Catecholamines binding to which receptor is responsible for thermogenesis and lipolysis within adipose tissue?
Catecholamines binding to which receptor is responsible for thermogenesis and lipolysis within adipose tissue?
Which effect of catecholamines is mediated through the stimulation of alpha 1 receptors?
Which effect of catecholamines is mediated through the stimulation of alpha 1 receptors?
Which of the following is a direct effect of catecholamines binding to beta 2 receptors?
Which of the following is a direct effect of catecholamines binding to beta 2 receptors?
Which receptor is responsible for bronchodilation caused by catecholamines?
Which receptor is responsible for bronchodilation caused by catecholamines?
Which of the following effects of catecholamines is mediated through the stimulation of beta 1 receptors?
Which of the following effects of catecholamines is mediated through the stimulation of beta 1 receptors?
Which effect of catecholamines is responsible for the increase in available glucose during acute stress?
Which effect of catecholamines is responsible for the increase in available glucose during acute stress?
Which hormone is responsible for increasing libido and secondary sexual characteristics in humans?
Which hormone is responsible for increasing libido and secondary sexual characteristics in humans?
In the catecholamine synthesis pathway, what happens right after the conversion of L-DOPA to dopamine within the cytosol of the chromaffin cell?
In the catecholamine synthesis pathway, what happens right after the conversion of L-DOPA to dopamine within the cytosol of the chromaffin cell?
What is the main function of norepinephrine (NE) in the catecholamine metabolism pathway?
What is the main function of norepinephrine (NE) in the catecholamine metabolism pathway?
What is the first step in the metabolism of epinephrine (EPI) via the COMT pathway within catecholamine metabolism?
What is the first step in the metabolism of epinephrine (EPI) via the COMT pathway within catecholamine metabolism?
Which precursor molecule is converted into androstenedione in the androgen production pathway?
Which precursor molecule is converted into androstenedione in the androgen production pathway?
What is the half-life of epinephrine (EPI) in the catecholamine metabolism pathway?
What is the half-life of epinephrine (EPI) in the catecholamine metabolism pathway?
In the catecholamine synthesis pathway, what happens right after the conversion of dopamine into norepinephrine (NE)?
In the catecholamine synthesis pathway, what happens right after the conversion of dopamine into norepinephrine (NE)?
What is the primary function of catecholamines in the flight or fight response?
What is the primary function of catecholamines in the flight or fight response?
Which of the following is NOT a function of cortisol in regulating gene expression?
Which of the following is NOT a function of cortisol in regulating gene expression?
What is the primary role of cortisol in fat metabolism?
What is the primary role of cortisol in fat metabolism?
What is the primary source of amino acids for gluconeogenesis during cortisol-stimulated protein catabolism?
What is the primary source of amino acids for gluconeogenesis during cortisol-stimulated protein catabolism?
What happens to free fatty acids (FFA) when cortisol levels are elevated?
What happens to free fatty acids (FFA) when cortisol levels are elevated?
Which of the following is NOT a potential consequence of long-term excessive cortisol release?
Which of the following is NOT a potential consequence of long-term excessive cortisol release?
What is the primary effect of cortisol on carbohydrate metabolism?
What is the primary effect of cortisol on carbohydrate metabolism?
Which of the following is a factor that stimulates glucocorticoid production in the adrenal gland?
Which of the following is a factor that stimulates glucocorticoid production in the adrenal gland?
What is the consequence of the surplus of free fatty acids (FFA) being redirected to the liver and abdomen?
What is the consequence of the surplus of free fatty acids (FFA) being redirected to the liver and abdomen?
Which statement accurately describes the effect of cortisol on glucose transport into fat cells?
Which statement accurately describes the effect of cortisol on glucose transport into fat cells?
What is the primary function of the hypothalamus in the HPA-axis?
What is the primary function of the hypothalamus in the HPA-axis?
Which of the following statements about the diurnal rhythm of cortisol production is correct?
Which of the following statements about the diurnal rhythm of cortisol production is correct?
Which of the following is NOT a symptom associated with elevated cortisol levels, according to the text?
Which of the following is NOT a symptom associated with elevated cortisol levels, according to the text?
High cortisol levels can lead to what illness that is also known as "Steroid Diabetes"?
High cortisol levels can lead to what illness that is also known as "Steroid Diabetes"?
What is the primary source of energy for muscles when cortisol levels are elevated?
What is the primary source of energy for muscles when cortisol levels are elevated?
What is the first step in the metabolism of norepinephrine (NE) via the MAO pathway within catecholamine metabolism?
What is the first step in the metabolism of norepinephrine (NE) via the MAO pathway within catecholamine metabolism?
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Study Notes
Catecholamines and Stress Response
- Catecholamines bind to adrenoceptors, including alpha 1, alpha 2, beta 1, and beta 2 receptors
- This binding stimulates various effects, including:
- Increased heart rate and force of contractions, resulting in increased blood pressure
- Vasoconstriction of visceral organs, causing restricted blood flow
- Vasodilation of skeletal muscle and liver arterioles, increasing glycogenolysis and glucose availability
- Lipolysis in adipose tissue, increasing ATP production from FFA and glycerol
- Increased basal metabolic rate
Catecholamine Binding to Adrenoceptors
- Alpha 1 receptors:
- Vasoconstriction
- Increased peripheral resistance
- Mydriasis (eye dilation)
- Mucosa decongestion
- Hyperglycemia
- Contraction of pilomotor muscles
- Beta 1 receptors:
- Tachycardia
- Increased lipolysis
- Increased myocardial contractility
- Increased renin release
- Beta 2 receptors:
- Vasodilation
- Increased peripheral resistance
- Bronchodilation
- Increased muscle and liver glycogenolysis
- Increased glucagon release
- Beta 3 receptors:
- Thermogenesis and lipolysis in adipose tissue
HPA-Axis and Cortisol Production
- The HPA-axis consists of the hypothalamus, pituitary, and adrenal glands
- Cortisol production is stimulated by stressors such as low blood glucose, hypovolemia, and emotional stress
- Cortisol increases expression of genes regulating metabolism, cardiovascular system, reproduction, growth, immune system, and circadian rhythm
Cortisol Effects
- Increases protein catabolism, mobilizing amino acids from extrahepatic tissue
- Reduces cellular protein synthesis of body proteins
- Long-term excessive cortisol release can lead to muscle wastage, osteoporosis, and other effects
Catecholamine Synthesis and Metabolism
- Catecholamine synthesis occurs in the adrenal medulla, involving L-tyrosine, L-DOPA, dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine
- Catecholamine metabolism involves COMT and MAO systems in the liver and kidneys, resulting in VMA excretion in urine
Cortisol Impact on Lipid Metabolism
- Increases mobilization of fatty acids from adipose tissue
- Increases libido and secondary sexual characteristics in humans
Cortisol Impact on Diabetes Mellitus
- High cortisol levels can lead to diabetes mellitus due to increased gluconeogenesis and decreased glucose usage
- 10% of dogs with hyperadrenocorticism (Cushing's disease) will also develop diabetes mellitus
- Prolonged administration of glucocorticoids can also cause diabetes mellitus
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