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Questions and Answers
What is the primary characteristic of an ionic bond?
What is the primary characteristic of an ionic bond?
What happens to electronegativity as you move across a period on the periodic table?
What happens to electronegativity as you move across a period on the periodic table?
Which type of covalent bond is characterized by unequal sharing of electrons?
Which type of covalent bond is characterized by unequal sharing of electrons?
What is the significance of the octet rule in chemical bonding?
What is the significance of the octet rule in chemical bonding?
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Which bond is formed due to a weak attraction between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom?
Which bond is formed due to a weak attraction between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom?
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Which of the following properties is NOT associated with covalent bonds?
Which of the following properties is NOT associated with covalent bonds?
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What type of compound is formed when there is a significant difference in electronegativity between bonding atoms?
What type of compound is formed when there is a significant difference in electronegativity between bonding atoms?
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Which of the following examples represents a metallic bond?
Which of the following examples represents a metallic bond?
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What does the principal quantum number (n) indicate in the electronic structure of matter?
What does the principal quantum number (n) indicate in the electronic structure of matter?
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Which of the following correctly describes the capacity of an f-orbital?
Which of the following correctly describes the capacity of an f-orbital?
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According to Hund's Rule, how should electrons fill orbitals of equal energy?
According to Hund's Rule, how should electrons fill orbitals of equal energy?
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In terms of periodic trends, how does atomic radius change as you move down a group in the periodic table?
In terms of periodic trends, how does atomic radius change as you move down a group in the periodic table?
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What is the maximum number of electrons that can occupy the p-orbital?
What is the maximum number of electrons that can occupy the p-orbital?
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Which principle states that no two electrons can have the same set of quantum numbers?
Which principle states that no two electrons can have the same set of quantum numbers?
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What does the azimuthal quantum number (l) indicate?
What does the azimuthal quantum number (l) indicate?
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Which of the following is the correct order in which energy levels are filled?
Which of the following is the correct order in which energy levels are filled?
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Study Notes
Electronic Structure of Matter
- Electronic structure refers to the arrangement of electrons in atoms, ions, or molecules.
- It dictates chemical properties, reactivity, and bonding behavior.
Basic Atomic Structure
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Atoms consist of three subatomic particles:
- Protons: Positively charged, found in the nucleus.
- Neutrons: No charge, found in the nucleus.
- Electrons: Negatively charged, orbit the nucleus in energy levels.
Energy Levels and Sublevels
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Energy levels, also known as shells, are denoted by the principal quantum number (n).
- For example, n = 1 represents the first shell, n = 2 represents the second shell, and so on.
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Sublevels exist within each energy level.
- s-orbital: Holds a maximum of 2 electrons.
- p-orbital: Holds a maximum of 6 electrons.
- d-orbital: Holds a maximum of 10 electrons.
- f-orbital: Holds a maximum of 14 electrons.
Quantum Numbers and Their Meaning
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Quantum numbers describe specific electron properties.
- Principal Quantum Number (n): Determines the electron's energy level.
- Azimuthal Quantum Number (l): Determines the shape of an electron's orbital.
- Magnetic Quantum Number (mₗ): Determines the spatial orientation of an orbital in space.
- Spin Quantum Number (ms): Describes the intrinsic angular momentum of an electron, represented as a spin up (+½) or spin down (-½).
Electron Configuration and Rules for Filling Orbitals
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Electron configuration shows the distribution of electrons in an atom's orbitals.
- Example: Carbon (C) has the electron configuration [1s^2 ^2s^2^ 2p^2^]{.math.inline}.
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Principles governing electron configuration:
- Aufbau Principle: Electrons fill orbitals in increasing energy order, starting with the lowest energy level.
- Pauli Exclusion Principle: No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers.
- Hund's Rule: Electrons individually occupy each orbital within a subshell before pairing up in the same orbital.
Periodic Trends Related to Electronic Structure
- Atomic Radius: Increases down a group (due to added energy levels) and decreases across a period (due to increased nuclear charge).
- Ionization Energy: The energy required to remove an electron from an atom. Increases across a period (due to stronger attraction between the nucleus and electrons) and decreases down a group (due to increased shielding).
- Electronegativity: The tendency of an atom to attract electrons in a chemical bond. Increases across a period (due to increased nuclear charge) and decreases down a group (due to increased shielding).
- Electron Affinity: The change in energy when an atom gains an electron.
Chemical Bonding
- Chemical bonds are forces that hold atoms or ions together in compounds and molecules.
- Bonding aims to achieve a more stable configuration, often by fulfilling the octet rule, which states that atoms tend to have 8 electrons in their outermost shell.
- Common bond types:
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Ionic Bond: Involves the transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal.
- Properties: High melting and boiling points, soluble in water, conduct electricity when dissolved or molten.
- Examples: NaCl (Sodium Chloride), MgO (Magnesium Oxide)
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Covalent Bond: Involves the sharing of electron pairs between two non-metals.
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Types:
- Non-polar covalent: Equal sharing of electrons.
- Polar covalent: Unequal sharing of electrons.
- Properties: Lower melting and boiling points, poor electrical conductors, can be polar or non-polar.
- Examples: H₂O (Water), CO₂ (Carbon Dioxide)
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Types:
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Metallic Bond: Involves metal atoms sharing a delocalized "sea of electrons" that move freely between atoms.
- Properties: Good conductors of heat and electricity, malleable and ductile, high melting points.
- Examples: Fe (Iron), Cu (Copper)
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Ionic Bond: Involves the transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal.
Key Concepts in Chemical Bonding
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Octet Rule: Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons to achieve a stable octet (8 electrons) in their outermost shell, except for hydrogen and helium, which only need 2 electrons.
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Electronegativity: The tendency of an atom to attract electrons in a chemical bond.
- The electronegativity difference between atoms determines the type of bond:
- 0.0 - 0.4: Non-polar covalent
- 0.5 - 1.7: Polar covalent
- 1.7 or greater: Ionic
- The electronegativity difference between atoms determines the type of bond:
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Hydrogen Bond: A special type of weak attraction between a hydrogen atom bonded to a highly electronegative atom (like oxygen, fluorine, or nitrogen) and another electronegative atom.
- Importance: Contributes to the properties of water and provides stability in DNA molecules.
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