Youth Development: Childhood to Adulthood

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Questions and Answers

Erik Erikson's psychosocial development theory posits that individuals develop through psychological crises. What is the most likely outcome for an individual who successfully resolves these crises?

  • Healthier overall development (correct)
  • Greater dependence on external validation
  • Heightened vulnerability to mental health issues
  • Increased risk-taking behavior in adulthood

According to Erik Erikson's theory, what is the primary conflict during adolescence?

  • Intimacy versus isolation
  • Industry versus inferiority
  • Generativity versus stagnation
  • Identity versus role confusion (correct)

What main characteristic defines the Identity vs. Role Confusion stage?

  • The development of a sense of self and personal identity. (correct)
  • The exploration of career options.
  • The struggle to achieve a sense of competence.
  • The need to form intimate relationships.

In Erikson's stage of Intimacy vs. Isolation, what is a potential negative outcome of failing to form intimate relationships?

<p>Feelings of loneliness and isolation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A young adult consistently struggles to form close relationships, which may be the result of experiencing difficulties in what earlier stage of psychosocial development?

<p>Identity vs. Role Confusion (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the provided context, identity is influenced by both nature and nurture. Which statement best describes how these factors interact?

<p>Nature provides the raw material, while nurture shapes and molds it through experience. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How might a nurturing environment influence an individual's behavior, according to the text?

<p>It shapes behavior through environmental experiences. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which definition best describes 'learning' as it is used in the context of behavior and development?

<p>A lasting change in an individual resulting from experience (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A child learns to avoid touching a hot stove after being burned. Which concept best explains this behavioral change?

<p>Learning through experience (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the central idea of Skinner's definition of behavior?

<p>Behavior focuses on an organism's interaction with its environment involving movement. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario best exemplifies behavior as defined by Skinner?

<p>A student raises their hand to ask a question in class. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In behavioral psychology, what constitutes the 'environment'?

<p>The full set of physical circumstances that can contribute to an organism's behavior (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key element of a 'stimulus'?

<p>It is an energy change that affects an organism through its receptor cells. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the three critical aspects of stimulus in relation to behavior, as described in the text?

<p>Form, Temporal, Function (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of behaviour, what is a 'response topography'?

<p>The specific physical movements involved in a behavior. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the defining characteristic of a 'response class'?

<p>Behaviors that serve the same function (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If a student has a 'repertoire' of study skills, what does this imply?

<p>The student has a range of study skills available. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the core idea of classical conditioning?

<p>A neutral stimulus becomes associated with a natural response. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A dog that salivates at the sound of a bell after the bell has been repeatedly paired with food is an example of what?

<p>Classical conditioning (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is habituation?

<p>Learning to ignore a stimulus after repeated exposure. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of operant conditioning?

<p>Modifying behavior through consequences. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the most accurate distinction between negative reinforcement and punishment?

<p>Negative reinforcement increases behavior by removing something unpleasant, while punishment decreases behavior. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A student studies diligently to avoid failing a test. Which concept best describes this?

<p>Negative reinforcement (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to social learning theory, what is the first step in learning?

<p>Attention (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A teenager imitates the clothing style of a popular celebrity. What process does this best illustrate according to social learning theory?

<p>Reproduction phase (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a true statement about puberty?

<p>It is a neuroendocrine process. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the information provided, which of the following factors can influence the onset and duration of puberty?

<p>Environmental Factors (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of hormones during puberty?

<p>To carry chemical messages throughout the body (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Both males and females produce androgens and estrogens. What statement is most accurate regarding the presence of these hormones?

<p>Males and females produce both, but in different amounts. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How are leptin and kisspeptins associated with puberty?

<p>They provide information to the GnRH neurons and regulate GnRH secretions. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What cognitive development does Piaget say occurs during the formal operational stage?

<p>Abstract thought and hypothetical reasoning (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a criticism of Piaget's theory of cognitive development?

<p>The stages don't reliably recognize the variance across cultures (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)?

<p>The difference between what an individual can learn alone versus with assistance. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Vygotsky's theory, what is 'scaffolding'?

<p>Providing appropriate support to extend a student's knowledge (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Binet's concept of 'mental age' relate to the calculation of IQ?

<p>IQ is calculated by dividing mental age by chronological age and multiplying by 100. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the provided text, what is one of the key areas examined on the Stanford-Binet test?

<p>Fluid reasoning (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key difference between the Wechsler Scales and the Binet tests, based on the provided information?

<p>The Wechsler Scales provide an overall IQ score, index scores (verbal comprehension, fluid reasoning, visual spatial ,working memory and proceessing speed),and are available in different versions for different ages. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences would be considered a view of considering someone’s capacity?

<p>Psychometric/ intelligence view (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Youth

Transition from childhood to adulthood, involving risk-taking.

Identity Formation

Formation of self-identity during adolescence, influenced by biological, social, and psychological factors.

Erik Erikson's Theory

Theory explains learning and growth through psychological crises; resolution leads to healthy development.

Identity vs. Role Confusion

Adolescents need to develop a sense of self; success leads to self-assurance, failure leads to confusion.

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Intimacy vs. Isolation

Young adults need to form intimate relationships; success leads to strong bonds, failure to isolation.

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Nurture

The influence of life experiences on development.

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Nature

Biological inheritance and genetic factors.

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Learning

Long-lasting change in knowledge due to experience.

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Behavior

Movement of an organism in relation to its environment.

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Environment

The full set of existing physical circumstances.

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Stimulus

Energy change affecting an organism via receptor cells.

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Response Topography

Physical form of a behavior.

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Response Class

A group of responses with the same function.

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Repertoire

Set of behaviors one has learned.

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Classical Conditioning

Learning through associations between stimuli.

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Habituation

Eliciting stimulus no longer causes a response.

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Operant Conditioning

Modifying behavior via consequences.

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Reinforcement

Strengthening desired behaviour.

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Positive Reinforcement

Giving something pleasant to strengthen behavior.

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Negative Reinforcement

Strengthening behaviour by removing something unpleasant.

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Positive Punishment

Giving something unpleasant to weaken behavior.

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Negative Punishment

Removing something pleasant weaken behavior.

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Social Learning Theory

Learning from observing others.

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Puberty

Brain-neuro-endocrine processes during adolescence.

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Hormone

Powerfull chemical sent by glands

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Testosterone

Male sex hormones i.e androgens.

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Estradiol

Females sex hormones i.e estrogens.

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Critical Body Fat

Minimum mass for first puberty.

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Leptin

Hormone sectreted by fat cells.

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Kisspeptins

Genes that regulates GnRH neurons.

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Body Image

Desire to have perfect body.

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Coping

Resources available to manage stress.

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Problem focused coping

Deals with problems.

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Emotion focused

Manage emotional pain.

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Neuroconstructivist View

Brain's dependence on biological/enviro.

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Corpus Callosum

Thickens processing.

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Prefrontal cortex

Develops slower reasoning.

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Amygdala

Develops during puberty.

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Development

how people grow.

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Constructivism

Actively build meaning of reality.

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Study Notes

Lecture 1 - Transition from Childhood to Adulthood

  • Youths are in a transitional phase from childhood to adulthood. In many cultures, globally, and are vulnerable to risk-taking behaviors.
  • Youth identity forms through a journey influenced by biological, social, and psychological factors.
  • Stereotypes about youths include the perceptions of being immature, inexperienced, and emotional.
  • Erik Erikson's psychosocial development theory states psychological crisis is the source of learning and growth. Failure to resolve crisis will yield negative impact. Improved resolution of crisis yields healthier individual development.
  • The lifespan is expanding due to extended education leading to a longer adolescence

Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

  • Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence, 13-19 years). Key events are social relationships/identity. Key question is "Who am I, and where am I going?" Positive outcome is ability to stay true to yourself while failure results in role confusion and a weak sense of self.
  • Stage 6: Intimacy vs Isolation (Young Adulthood, 20-40 years). Key events are forming intimate relationships. Key question is "Am I loved and wanted?". Positive outcome is strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation,

The Interplay of Nature and Nurture

  • Nature refers to biological inheritance
  • Nurture comes from life experience.
  • Identity comes from both nurture and biological factors.
  • Many biological, psychological, social, and cultural factors affect individuals. Individuals experiences varies.
  • Learning involves a change in an individual due to experience according to Mayer.
  • Behavior is the movement of an organism by external elements, or an organism's interaction with the environment that involves movement.

Defining and Understanding Behavior

  • Skinner defines behavior as the movement of an organism/parts using frame of reference from organism or various external objects/fields.
  • Behavior is that portion of an organism's interaction with its environment that involves movement of some part of the organism.
  • Environment: The complete set of physical circumstances in which an organism exists, where relevant factors contribute to behavior.
  • Stimulus: An energy change affecting an organism through receptor cells.
  • Stimuli includes: Form (physical feature), Temporal aspect (antecedent/consequences), and Function (effects on behavior).
  • Antecedent: what comes before.
  • Behavior: The action.
  • Consequence: the result.

Elements of Behavioral Analysis

  • Response topography: The physical form of the behavior, including the movements involved.
  • Response class: A set of actions producing the same effect on the environment, sharing a common function.
  • Repertoire: All the behaviors an individual can perform in different situations.

Conditioning Types

  • Classical conditioning (Ivan Pavlov): Animal behavioral modifications. With a neutral stimulus repeatedly paired with food, dogs began to salivate at the stimulus alone
  • Habituation is when the eliciting stimulus no longer triggers the behavior.
  • Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner): Modification of behavior based on consequences. The frequency of a behavior is modified by the consequences attached to the behavior.
  • Reinforcement strengthens desired behavior via positive stimuli, increasing behavior frequency.
  • Punishment weakens undesired behavior via negative stimuli, decreasing behavior frequency.
    • Positive reinforcement: giving something pleasant to strengthen behavior.
    • Negative reinforcement involves strengthening behavior by removing something unpleasant.
    • Positive Punishment: presenting something unpleasant.
    • Negative Punishment: involves removing something pleasant
  • People grow through behavioral changes by rewards and punishment according to Skinner, not emotions/thoughts.

Social Learning

  • Social learning theory: involves learning through observation.
    • Phase 1 (Attentional): paying attention to the model.
    • Phase 2 (Retention): imitating and rehearsing.
    • Phase 3 (Reproduction): matching behavior.
    • Phase 4 (Motivational): being motivated to reproduce the behavior.

Puberty

Lecture 2 - Puberty

  • A neuro/endo/crine process in early adolescence that stimulates rapid physical changes.
  • Changes in endocrine system affect weight/body fat Other factors include brain weight, rapid weight gain in infancy, obesity, and sociocultural factors.
  • Heredity: Puberty is not determined by the environment and happens between ages 9-16 for most individuals. Its onset/duration can be influenced by environmental factors.
  • Hormones: Chemicals secreted by endocrine glands, carried through bloodstream causing whisker in boys, hips widening in girls.
  • Androgens (male sex hormone) and estrogens (female sex hormone), are present in both sexes. Male bodies rises is testosterone level, females rises estradiol level
  • Testosterone level increases increase in weight, and cause voice changes in males
  • Estradiol level increases, causing breast and uterine development, and skeletal changes in females

Determinants of Puberty

  • Weight and Body Fat: A critical body fat mass is required for puberty, higher BMI leads to earlier puberty, and underrutrition may delay puberty.
  • Leptin and Kisspeptins: Metabolic gatekeepers to reproduction

Hormone Leptin

  • Leptin is secreted by fat cells and regulates puberty
  • Stimulates the brain to increase metabolism and reduce hunger, regulates puberty in females. Increased leptin inhibits food intake which delays triggers treatment restore.

Hormone Kisspeptins

  • Kisspeptins produce the kiss1 gene which regulates GnRH neurons and plays an important role in the onset and change of puberty.

Weight at Birth & Infancy

  • Low-birth-weight girls experience menarche earlier and birth weight may lead to risk for small testicular volume during adolescence. Accelerated weight impacts puberty.

Sociocultural & Environmental Factors of Puberty

  • Body image, hormonal change, sleep changes, risk taking behavior, and help seeking behavior all impact puberty.

Stress & Coping

  • Stress stems from relationships appraised as significant, exceeding available resources.
  • Coping involves applying cognitive and behavioral methods to manage demands. Coping can be problem focussed, or emotion focussed.

The Brain

Factors Regarding Coping & Intelligence

  • Neuroconstructivist View biological processes and environmental experiences affect brain development
  • Brain has plasticity, is context-dependent, and its development is linked to cognitive abilities.

Brain Structure

  • Prefrontal Cortex: Judgment region that reins in emotions but continues developing until emerging adulthood.
  • Corpus Callosum: Fibers connecting brain hemispheres thicken during adolescence to improve information processing.
  • Amygdala: Limbic system structure that plays a large part in emotion.

Experience & Plasticity

  • Corpus callosum thickens in adolescence.
  • Prefrontal cortex is also heavily involved. The limbic system sits in the seat of emotion/develops more slowly as puberty occurs.
  • Adolescents become more emotional as prefrontal cortex are yet to catch up/fully develop
  • Reward seeking and risk taking can increase during this development.
  • Neurogenesis occurs, in hippocampus (memory) and olfactory bulb (smell). The functions of the new brain cells are still unknown.
  • Drugs, stress, and exercise, can inhibit or promote neurogenesis.
  • Adolescents brains can recover from injury. High plasticity. Education should not be speculative statements, there is continuous development in adolescents’ brains.

Piaget's Theory

Chapter 3 - Cognitive Development

  • Development refers to how people grow, adapt, and change.
  • Development includes personality, socioemotional skills, cognition, and language.
  • It stems from interplay between Nature and Nurture.
  • Constructivism (Piaget): Children build meaning and understanding through experience, actively constructing knowledge by assimilating and accommodating new information to understand world due to being biologically adaptive
  • Adolescents organize and adapt thinking and include new ideas.
  • Schema: adolescents use schema to construct their world. They are a pattern of behavior and are able to interact with the environment.

Understanding & Using Schemas

  • Assimilation involves understanding by connecting to to pre existing knowledge
  • Accommodation is where new information modifies existing schemas, and an adjustment is required in response to new information
  • Equilibration: shift in thought from one state to another because of a cognitive conflict being experienced.

Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 Years)

  • Construct understanding by coordinating experiences with physical/motoric actions and exploring with instincts. Objective permanence is developed where an object will exist even if out of sight.

Preoperational Stage (2-7 Years)

  • Begin to represent the world with words, images, and drawings. Symbolic thoughts begin to be prominent and language develops. A lack of understanding and set reversibility exists still.
  • Centration: Children only focus on one aspect.

Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 Years)

  • Logical reasoning replaces intuitive thought with specific or concrete examples
  • Concrete operational thought is actions that allow individuals to do mentally what they previously did physically
  • Conservation skills of length numbers, mass, etc can be recognized
  • Classification skills are increased as able to form concepts and relationships
  • Unable to make assumptions.

Formal Operational Thought (11-15 Years)

  • Can now think abstract.
  • Full of ideals and possibilities
  • Can think of hypothetical situations and deduce logic. Critical thinking has also emerged.
  • Assimilation characterizes their early operational thought and accommodation characterized their operational thought

Critique of Piaget's Cognitive Theory

  • Timing and the stages have their critiques
  • Some adults do not even reach formal operational thinkers
  • Culture and education effect
  • Limited focus on attention and general strategy.

Vygotsky's Theory

  • Emphasis on culture
  • Social constructivist approach emphasizes learning through social interaction.

Zone of Proximal Development

  • The range of tasks too hard to do alone but that can be done with help.
  • Scaffolding supports further knowledge acquisition, while collaboration learning occurs.

Intelligence Testing

Psychometric View

  • Binet introduced mental age.

Binet Testing

  • William Stern intelligence quotient (IQ), a person's mental age divided by chronological age (CA), multiplied by 100. Formula: IQ = MA/CA × 100
  • These revisions are called Stanford-Binet tests. (5 content areas are examined: fluid reasoning, knowledge
  • Wechsler Scales overall IQ shows verbal comprehension, working speed/visual ability. The scales exist in 3 forms for adults.

Types of Intelligence (Gardner)

  • Spatial: visualizing the world in 3D.
  • Bodily-kinesthetic: coordinating mind with body
  • Linguistic: finding the right word
  • Intra personal: understanding yourself
  • Interpersonal intelligence: Sensing feelings and motives.
  • Logical-mathematical: Quantifying things
  • Musical: recognizing tones

The Self

The Self, II

  • Encompasses sense of identity, emotional development and understanding, and overall personality.
  • Self understanding: the individual's cognitive representation of who they are.

Abstraction, Idealism, The Self:

  • Use abstract descriptions, differentiate themselves, experience a fluctuating experience fluctuations, contradictions in multiple roles, comparing real to ideal self can cause great discrepancy.

Positive & Negative Self Perception

  • Positive/negative self evaluation
  • Scholastic competence
  • Athletic competence
  • Social acceptance
  • Physical appearance
  • Behavior

Gender (Sexuality)

Chapter 4 - Gender

  • Puberty intensifies the sexual aspects of adolescents' gender attitudes and behavior.
  • Freud and Erikson suggest gender is destiny + anatomy define gender (critics: more freedom of choice exists).
  • Evolutionary psychology states adaptation during evolution made differentiation more apparent.

Social Theory and Constructs of Gender

  • Social Role Theory: Gender differences mainly result from roles of each in terms to less power and status in most cultures -> less co-opportunity
  • Social Cognitive Theory impacts gender development
  • Observation & imitation
  • Rewards and punishments

Influences on Gender & Social Development

  • Parents and siblings can influence gender.
  • Peers can influence/ adolescents spend increasing time with peers.
  • Observed a strong predictor due to perception, especially with approval and disapproval
  • Schools and Teachers can have influences as well.
  • Teachers can be biased against male and female. Single sex are + less distraction or reduction in harassment - opportunities to work together

Mass Media Effects

  • The portrayal of sexes on television is stereotyped
  • Music videos can showcase the world is aggressive, dominant.
  • More social media equals lower self esteem
  • Early adolescence may be a period of heightened sensitivity.

Observations, Rewards, and Punishment

  • Observation, imitation, rewards, and punishment are mechanisms that increase gender developing to social expectations
  • Children and adolescents perceive the world motivate
  • The gender stereotypes boys use are often rigid while there are few cognitive differences
  • Bodies are shaped as body images continue to develop.

Moral Identity

Value, Religion, Spirituality

  • Kohlberg moral code and the importance of value laden discussion.
  • 15% adults have no stigma attaching masturbation.
  • Abstain from sex early on.
  • The more you see social media, the less self esteem. It’s less realistic.

Moral Behavior

Topic 1: Moral Development

  • Definition: A standard of right and wrong involving changes in thought in the context of rules. Principles that give lives meaning through adversity
  • Moral Thought: The 3 levels of development by cognitive influences
  • Moral Behavior: influenced basic process of actions that cognitive
  • Moral Feeling: theory of action that moral are feeling or action

Development of Moral Thought

  • Moral Personality, Self understanding, Moral character, and integrity

Ethical Responsibility

  • Self awareness
  • Self reflection
  • Goal setting in society
  • Understands social standards and what each mean.
  • Culture affects morality
  • Family influence
  • Empathy
  • All connect and have aspects.
  • Understand importance.

Parental Discipline

  • Parental Discipline
  • Love & Withdrawal
  • Power Assertion
  • Induction is most effective

Value & Spiritual Development

  • In schools
  • Hidden Curricula (rules, moral)
  • Character Ed (literacy to help)
  • Ethical Sensitivity (connection to help diversity)
  • Focus + Action + Judgement.
  • Ethics, Values + Service helps to have a good impact.

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