the brain second part

The Human Brain

• The brain is the central organ controlling our thoughts and actions.
• It is composed of millions of cells called neurons.
• Neurons communicate through connections called synapses.
• The outer layer of the brain, called the cerebral cortex, controls movement, language, attention, and thought.
• The central nervous system, comprised of the brain and spinal cord, has a symmetrical structure.
• The brain is divided into two hemispheres (right and left) and four lobes.
• Each lobe has specific functions:
  • Frontal lobe: Controls movement and personality.
  • Parietal lobe: Processes sensations and helps us understand our position in space.
  • Occipital lobe: Deals with vision
  • Temporal lobe: Connected to hearing, memory, emotions, and language.
• Language centers are located in the temporal and frontal areas of the left hemisphere.

Brain Plasticity

• The brain's ability to change and adapt in response to experiences and external stimuli is called plasticity.
• The cerebral cortex is highly adaptable, particularly in early years of life, but this ability continues later.
• These periods are known as "critical periods" where the brain is very sensitive to stimuli and important for learning and growth.
• The brain adapts and selects the most useful circuits for survival and development.
• Lack of stimulation during critical periods can cause damage difficult to recover from.
• Studies by psychologist René Spitz showed the effects of lack of care in infants.
• Stimuli activate genes that remain otherwise inactive.
• Although less pronounced than in children, the adult brain retains the ability to adapt and change.
• Individuals learning Braille experience changes in the part of the brain associated with touch.
• Even after injuries or amputations, the brain can reorganize to adapt to new situations.
• Keeping the brain active helps maintain its abilities over time.

Perception

• Perception is how the brain gathers information from the external world through senses and past experiences.
• Perception isn't always objective; it's influenced by experiences, emotions, and the surrounding environment.
• There's a difference between physical reality and what we perceive due to unconscious brain processes.
• Perception involves the senses, intelligence, and the entire personality.
• Different schools of psychology have studied perception in various ways leading to different results.
• Psychologists have researched distinguishing colors.
• German scientist Hermann von Helmholtz proposed that we have receptors for red, blue, and green colors.
• Helmholtz believed the brain doesn't just receive sensations but actively organizes data based on past experiences.
• The brain creates a complete image of an object using unconscious processes to combine simple information.

Gestalt Theory

• Perception isn't just the sum of small details but involves the organization of a set (a "form") as a whole.
• We distinguish a figure from its background when perceiving.
• The principle of proximity suggests we tend to perceive elements close to each other as a group.
• Similar elements are more easily recognized, according to the principle of similarity.
• The principle of closure states that we automatically complete incomplete shapes and images.
• The principle of continuity suggests we see lines or shapes as continuous rather than separate.
• The principle of good form or pregnance states that we perceive symmetrical, regular, and simple figures as more stable and pleasant.
• Past experiences influence our perception – for example, we recognize the letter E due to our knowledge of the alphabet.

Functionalist Perspective

• This perspective focuses on how perception is influenced by experiences and needs.
• Psychologist Jerome Bruner studied variables influencing perception.
• Emotions affect how we recognize objects and the time it takes to do so.
• If a stimulus is perceived as painful, the brain might avoid recognizing it for protection.
• Our needs influence perception – if we need something, we'll be more sensitive to relevant stimuli.
• The "New Look" theory claims past experiences and emotional states actively influence how we perceive things.
• This theory suggests that perception is not a passive process but an active and adaptive one.

Attention

• This is our ability to focus on relevant information and ignore irrelevant information.
• Attention acts as a filter selecting useful information and discarding unnecessary information.
• Broadbent's theory suggests that the filter is based on a person's goals, tasks, and expectations.
• Selective attention focuses on one thing at a time, filtering out other information.
• Divided attention refers to the ability to perform multiple tasks at once.
• Research by Hirst and Kalmar showed that two different tasks (like grammar and math) result in fewer errors than two similar tasks.
• The primary task receives more attention and resources, while the secondary task receives less (example – driving is primary, listening to the radio is secondary).
• Tim Shallce's model proposes that attention isn't just a filter but a system that controls cognitive operations when they conflict.
• Competitive selection automatically chooses the most important task according to the moment.

Consciousness

• In the late 19th century, scientists studied consciousness by asking people to "look inside themselves" and describe feelings and thoughts (introspection).
• Behaviorists criticized this method, believing it wasn't scientific because it didn't yield objective and verifiable data.
• Patients with split-brain (where the two hemispheres were surgically separated to treat epilepsy) showed that consciousness is the result of integration between operations of the two hemispheres.
• Consciousness has been studied as a continuum ranging from coma to wakefulness, with more attentive wakefulness marked by awareness of one's actions.
• The prefrontal lobes are essential for controlling mental operations and fully develop in children only after four to five years old.
• There are conscious cognitive processes (conscious) and others occurring without our awareness (cognitive unconscious).
• The cognitive unconscious includes automatic processes like driving without thinking.

Freud and Consciousness

• Freud defined consciousness as the part of the mind receiving information from the senses and perceiving emotions of pleasure or displeasure.
• Consciousness is constantly in conflict with the unconscious, which hides painful emotions and memories.
• Hidden memories in the unconscious aren't erased and can resurface through dreams or events.
• The preconscious is an area of the mind containing non-threatening memories readily recalled to consciousness.
• The metaphor of an iceberg represents consciousness as the visible part, while the majority of memories and emotions lie hidden beneath the surface in the unconscious.

Memory

• Memory is like an archive storing and organizing information and memories called "traces."
• The oldest model, the associative model, suggests that we remember better if we can associate traces through contiguity, similarity, or contrast.
• Hermann Ebbinghaus studied memory as a pure ability, using lists of nonsense syllables to prevent experiences or emotions from influencing memories.
• Ebbinghaus memorized series of random syllables (e.g., ZUC, DAX) to measure his ability to remember them.
• He discovered that repetition improved memory and decreased the time needed to learn a list.
• He suggested that similar elements (like sounds or letters) helped with better recall.
• Subjects had to recall a series of syllables or numbers in the same order they were presented (serial presentation).
• The phenomenon of "savings" indicates that repeating a previously learned task takes less time than learning it from scratch.

HIP (Human Information Processing) Model

• The model suggests memory works like a computer, receiving, processing, and storing information.
• The sensory register (SR) receives information from the senses and stores it for a few tenths of a second.
• The short-term memory (STM) receives information from the SR and stores it for a few seconds; it has a limited capacity.
• Through a process of encoding, such as rehearsal, information from the STM is transferred to the long-term memory (LTM), which can store memories for a long time, even forever.
• Once stored in the LTM, information can be retrieved when needed, making it available again.
• The model helps us understand how memory works, with three main systems communicating with each other.

Memory System Breakdown

• Sensory Register (SR): Stores information from the senses for a brief period.
• Short-term Memory (STM) or Working Memory: Acts like a temporary notepad, storing information for a few seconds.
• Encoding: The process of transforming information into something the memory can store.
• Consolidation: When a memory becomes stable and moves from STM to LTM.
• Storage: How memories are preserved in the LTM.
• Retrieval: Recalling stored information.
• Long-term Memory (LTM): Stores memories for extended periods, even a lifetime.

Types of Memory

• Episodic Memory: Stores specific events and moments, like a lunch or a meeting.
• Semantic Memory: Stores general knowledge like word meanings or world knowledge.
• Declarative Memory: Knowledge we can consciously express (facts or definitions).
• Procedural Memory: Memory for unconscious actions like riding a bicycle or swimming.

Neuroscience

• Neuroscience explores the interplay between the brain (biology) and mind (psychology), investigating the interaction between humans and their environment.

Human Adaptation

• Anthropologists Alesani and Argelato define humans as beings who adapt to the world through thought and symbolism, not just instinct.
• Humans adapt by developing cognitive abilities and using tools, techniques, and language.
• The human brain continues to grow for many years after birth, enhancing learning and adaptation abilities.
• Psychology explores three fundamental aspects:
  • Human Technical Capacity: The ability to transform the environment through technology.
  • Impact of Technology: How inventions like writing and media affect the development of cognitive abilities.
  • Risk of Technological Dominance: The risk that technology might dominate and transform nature.
• Psychology works with biology and cybernetics to understand the balance between nature and technology.
• Evolutionary theory views evolution as a continuous and non-linear process, emphasizing the continuity between species and the development of the human mind based on environmental stimuli.

Pedagogy and Human Adaptation

• Pedagogy must create educational paths that encourage interaction between genetic inheritance and environmental stimuli.

Harnessing Differences

• Recognizing that each brain is unique and has its own learning capacity is essential.
• Intervention at the right time is necessary to support development.
• Education should optimize natural learning abilities.
• Pedagogy must understand how the brain processes information and address issues related to excessive media exposure.
• There needs to be a balance between technology use and education.
• Pedagogy has a duty to balance technology with nature and maintain harmony between the two.

The Mind-Computer Analogy

• In the 50s, people started comparing brain function to computer processes to better understand learning and language.
• The brain is a complex system, developed through millions of years of evolution, and unique to each individual, shaped by environment and personal experiences.
• Neuroscience investigates the brain's physical structure and function, while psychology focuses on behavior and mental processes.
• Cognitive psychology utilizes findings in cybernetics and artificial intelligence to study the mind.
• Neuroscience explores various aspects of the nervous system, from biochemistry to neural connections, and connects to the philosophy of the mind.

Cognitive Neuroscience

• It studies the brain's function and mental processes, exploring how neural circuits affect perception, memory, and language.
• Neurotransmitters are chemical substances that allow neurons to communicate through synapses.
• Simple neural structures are studied in simpler organisms to understand how our brains work.
• Neuroscience investigates the biological mechanisms underlying learning and brain development, starting from the embryo.
• Researchers investigate how neurons organize themselves, allowing us to perceive, remember, speak, and think.
• Research methods include anatomico-clinical studies, functional activations, and animal experiments to explore the brain.
• Neuroscience and psychology have overcome their division in recent decades, engaging in dialogue.

The Complexity of Mind

• Science recognizes that the mind is part of a complex system, not just the sum of the brain's physical parts.
• Computer simulations allow scientists to study complex systems like the brain differently from traditional experiments.
• Researchers strive to understand the brain through both its physical components and cultural influences.
• The experiences we have select synaptic connections in the brain, changing how we think and learn.

Mirror Neurons

• These special neurons activate when we perform an action and when we see someone else doing the same action.
• In the 90s, during a lab experiment, researcher Giacomo Rizzolatti and his team discovered mirror neurons. The monkey showed activation of neurons even just watching a researcher take food.
• These neurons changed our understanding of learning through imitation, helping explain phenomena like imitation and understanding others' intentions.
• Imitation is crucial for learning, and mirror neurons help us do so.
• These studies are important for understanding conditions like Asperger syndrome and developing new therapies based on imitation.

Neuroscience and Education

• Discoveries about the brain should be used to improve education, helping each individual develop their abilities to the fullest.
• Children need stimulating environments from birth to develop their full mental potential. Caring and information-rich environments help children grow better.

Critical Periods in Education

• Provide educational support during critical periods when cognitive abilities emerge.

Individualized Education

• Recognize and celebrate each child's unique abilities and talents.
• Customize education to cater to the specific needs and strengths of each individual.

High-Quality Learning Environment

• Create a well-structured educational environment with adequate time, space, and resources.
• Foster positive and nurturing relationships to support learning effectively.

Eco-Friendly Approach

• Emphasize the importance of environmental awareness and responsibility.
• Encourage children to understand their connection to nature and the environment.
• Promote sustainable values and minimize anthropocentric viewpoints.