POI, FSI, CRDR

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Questions and Answers

What primarily occurs when electrons strike the anode target?

Production of heat and radiation

Production of heat and light

Production of x-rays and heat (correct)

Production of sound and x-rays

Which part is NOT a basic component of film composition?

Base

Protective coating (correct)

Emulsion

Adhesive layer

What is the approximate thickness of the film used in this process?

50 to 100 μm

150 to 300 μm (correct)

200 to 400 μm

100 to 200 μm

What percentage of energy is converted into x-rays during exposure?

1% Signup and view all the answers

In which direction do x-rays primarily travel after production?

In all directions Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of indirect safelight?

It uses a sodium vapor bulb. Signup and view all the answers

What is the maximum allowable optical density (OD) increase from baseline measurements for quality control?

0.15 OD Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect is NOT part of film sensitometry?

Film thickness Signup and view all the answers

In quality control of darkroom processing, what is a requirement for the darkroom environment?

It must be maintained clean and organized. Signup and view all the answers

When should direct safelight be used during the processing workflow?

After the automatic processor reaches its maximum capacity. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main purpose of the film base in radiography?

To support the sensitive emulsion and maintain film shape Signup and view all the answers

What is focal track pitting, and how can it be prevented?

It occurs from electron bombardment and is prevented by adding rhenium to tungsten Signup and view all the answers

How does dimensional stability of the x-ray film affect imaging?

It ensures the film maintains size and shape to prevent image distortion Signup and view all the answers

What should be done before using an x-ray tube to ensure proper functioning?

It should be preheated Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of the x-ray film base?

It must be nearly transparent to white light Signup and view all the answers

What action must a radiographer take to prolong the life of the x-ray tube?

Perform warm-up procedures before use Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the radiographer in relation to the expensive x-ray equipment?

To ensure proper use to prevent damage and prolong equipment life Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is NOT true about the characteristics of the x-ray film?

The emulsion is the only factor affecting film exposure time Signup and view all the answers

What type of film is insensitive to red, orange, and yellow light?

Ortho film Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the aging process of film as temperature increases?

It accelerates. Signup and view all the answers

What should be used to prevent films from sticking together?

Photo-inert leaves of paper Signup and view all the answers

Why is film storage important to note the expiration date?

Expired films must be discarded. Signup and view all the answers

How should films be stored to prevent pressure artifacts?

Vertically, at the edge. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of intensifying screens in radiographic film?

To convert x-ray energy to light Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between quantum mottle and image quality?

Higher quantum mottle decreases image quality. Signup and view all the answers

What should be done to film before using it again after storage?

Warm it to room temperature. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a disadvantage of using intensifying screens?

Decreased image quality Signup and view all the answers

What limit should film storage maintain from radiation areas?

12 µR limit Signup and view all the answers

Which layer of the intensifying screen is responsible for producing visible light?

Active layer Signup and view all the answers

What type of film is recommended for rapid processing?

Calcium tungstate film Signup and view all the answers

What is the recommended storage temperature range for film?

0°C to 5°C Signup and view all the answers

Which system helps ensure that the oldest films are used first?

First in, first out Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'exposure latitude' refer to in x-ray film?

The ability of the film to record images with varying densities Signup and view all the answers

Which layer in x-ray film provides protection to the sensitive emulsion layer?

Supercoat Signup and view all the answers

Which material is commonly used as the base layer for x-ray films?

Polyester Signup and view all the answers

How does film speed relate to exposure in x-ray imaging?

Higher speed means less exposure is necessary Signup and view all the answers

What impact do high contrast emulsions have on radiographic images?

They provide significant differences in density Signup and view all the answers

What was a significant innovation in x-ray film technology in 1918?

Development of duplitized films Signup and view all the answers

What thickness range does the emulsion layer of x-ray film typically have?

150 – 300 μm Signup and view all the answers

Which component of x-ray film is responsible for determining its sensitivity to exposure?

Emulsion Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of films with narrow exposure latitude?

They require precise exposure factors to achieve acceptable density Signup and view all the answers

What tends to happen as the speed point of x-ray film increases?

The amount of exposure necessary decreases Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of the pulse-counter device in an x-ray generator?

To count pulses in the x-ray beam and evaluate exposure Signup and view all the answers

How does selecting a milliampere (mA) affect the focal spot size in x-ray imaging?

Higher mA results in a larger focal spot Signup and view all the answers

Where is the ionization chamber located in relation to the cassette holder in an x-ray unit?

Between the cassette holder and the patient Signup and view all the answers

What triggers the termination of exposure in the pulse-counter device?

An adequate amount of light reaches the photomultiplier tube Signup and view all the answers

What range of milliampere (mA) is typically available for selection in x-ray generators?

25 to 2000 mA Signup and view all the answers

What is the main purpose of the exposure timer in an x-ray generator unit?

To determine the length of time that x-rays are produced Signup and view all the answers

Which component of an x-ray system allows radiographers to modify the energy of the produced x-rays?

Kilovoltage meter Signup and view all the answers

How is the total amount of tube current indicated during exposure?

Via the milliampere second meter Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes electronic timers from other types of timers in x-ray systems?

They are the most accurate and reliable Signup and view all the answers

What does the milliampere second (mAs) represent in x-ray production?

The total amount of tube current over a period Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of the kilovoltage selector is true?

It determines the energy levels of x-rays produced Signup and view all the answers

What is the shortest setting time for mechanical timers in an x-ray generator?

1/10 s Signup and view all the answers

What does the kilovoltage meter indicate during the x-ray exposure?

The voltage that will pass across the x-ray tube Signup and view all the answers

How does selecting the kV major control settings affect the x-ray production?

Changes voltage by approximately 10 kV per turn Signup and view all the answers

What initiates the process of x-ray production after the patient is positioned and equipment is ready?

Activation of the exposure switch Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic of x-ray photons allows them to interact with matter to produce secondary radiation?

Travel in straight lines Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is critical for making an x-ray exposure besides patient positioning?

Proper selection of kilovoltage and exposure time Signup and view all the answers

What is created when the cathode filament reaches thermionic emission?

A space charge of electrons Signup and view all the answers

What role do intensifying screens play in the imaging system of x-ray film?

They enhance the sensitivity of the film to light Signup and view all the answers

Which component of the x-ray film is responsible for causing visible changes during processing?

Sensitive emulsion Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during the activation of the rotor switch in x-ray production?

Anode rotates to the appropriate speed Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about characteristics of x-ray photons is incorrect?

They can be deflected by mirrors Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of an automatic processor in radiographic film processing?

To transport and process films automatically Signup and view all the answers

What temperature range is typically used during the processing cycle of an automatic processor?

33.8 to 35°C or 90 to 95°F Signup and view all the answers

What is the clear time when processing films in an automatic processor?

15 to 20 seconds Signup and view all the answers

What problem can occur when film is prematurely fed into the processor?

Overlapping of film Signup and view all the answers

What system within the automatic processor helps to maintain a stable solution temperature?

Recirculation system Signup and view all the answers

In what year was the first automatic processor, Pako, introduced?

1942 Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the entrance roller in an automatic processor?

To grab the film and transport it Signup and view all the answers

How long does a double capacity processor typically take to process a film?

3 minutes Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of the replenishment system in an automatic processor?

To add fresh developer and fixer solutions Signup and view all the answers

What is the dry-to-drop time in the context of film processing?

The total time from feeding to receiving the film Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of the transport system is critical to ensuring film quality during processing?

The speed of the film advancement must remain constant Signup and view all the answers

What is a common maximum processing capacity for an automatic processor?

60 films per hour Signup and view all the answers

Which component of an automatic processor helps to remove debris and stabilize liquid temperature?

Recirculation system Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the film speed in radiographic imaging?

It determines the amount of exposure needed Signup and view all the answers

What is the main purpose of maintaining cleanliness in a darkroom?

To enhance the efficiency of film processing Signup and view all the answers

What equipment is essential for transferring films without entering the darkroom?

A passbox Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant disadvantage of a light-lock door in a darkroom?

It can result in accidental film exposure Signup and view all the answers

Why must regular visual examinations be made in a darkroom environment?

To identify any dirt or specks that could affect film quality Signup and view all the answers

What cleaning agent is recommended for effective cleaning of darkroom surfaces?

70% isopropyl alcohol Signup and view all the answers

In a radiographic darkroom, where should fresh films be located?

On the left side Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of the darkroom in radiography?

To protect film from exposure to white light and ionizing radiation Signup and view all the answers

What design is preferred for a darkroom that is larger in size and can facilitate easy access?

Labyrinth or maze design Signup and view all the answers

What is the potential risk associated with a passbox in darkroom design?

Accidental opening during film transfer Signup and view all the answers

What is 'latensification' in the context of film processing?

An increase in film sensitivity after exposure Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the rotor switch in an x-ray generator?

To initiate the rotation of the anode Signup and view all the answers

How is the spinning top test set up for evaluating x-ray generator performance?

Place the spinning top on the film cassette Signup and view all the answers

What occurs after the rotor switch is activated in the x-ray generator?

The anode reaches its maximum rotation speed Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of reaching the maximum RPM of the anode in the x-ray system?

It allows x-ray exposure to start Signup and view all the answers

During the spinning top test, what happens when exposures are made while the top is spinning?

Film records the duration of exposure Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary flow of current during the exposure process in x-ray imaging?

From the cathode to the anode Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of the energy produced during anode interaction is converted to heat?

99% Signup and view all the answers

Which protective component is used to prevent damage to the sensitive emulsion surface of the film?

Overcoat Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the behavior of useful x-rays after production?

They are mostly absorbed by lead tube housing Signup and view all the answers

What is the typical thickness range of the film used in x-ray imaging?

150 to 300 μm Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of a back-up timer in an x-ray system?

To terminate exposure if AEC fails Signup and view all the answers

What effect does varying kVp have on density when using AEC?

It has no effect on density Signup and view all the answers

How much does each step in density control on AEC represent?

25% Signup and view all the answers

What should be taken into account to prevent overexposure in AEC systems?

Select a proper chamber and patient positioning Signup and view all the answers

What is a consequence of prolonged rotation with a hot filament in x-ray tubes?

Shortened life of anode and cathode Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is NOT considered essential for producing high-quality radiographs?

Using film with high sensitivity Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes the relationship between image quality and AEC?

Quality remains consistent across examinations Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the radiographer in relation to x-ray equipment and exposure factors?

Ensure optimal exposure factors and patient safety Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the x-ray tube's housing?

To act as a support and protective device Signup and view all the answers

What material is the glass envelope of the x-ray tube primarily made from?

Pyrex glass Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the glass envelope's window in an x-ray tube?

To allow x-ray photons to pass through easily Signup and view all the answers

What property of tungsten makes it suitable for x-ray tube construction?

It can withstand tremendous heat Signup and view all the answers

Which feature of a rotating anode improves heat dissipation?

The fast rotation speed of the anode Signup and view all the answers

What is the line-focus principle associated with in x-ray tubes?

The angle of the anode target area to reduce effective focal spot size Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes a stationary anode compared to a rotating anode?

Absence of rotating capacity Signup and view all the answers

How fast can the anode in a rotating x-ray tube typically rotate?

3000 to 10,000 rpm Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the focal track in an x-ray tube?

To define the area struck by electrons Signup and view all the answers

Which component in the x-ray tube is referred to as the negative electrode?

The cathode Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the protective coating in the intensifying screen?

To prevent static build up Signup and view all the answers

How does increasing the thickness of the phosphor layer affect screen speed?

It increases screen speed Signup and view all the answers

What effect does a higher screen speed have on the quality of the image produced?

It leads to higher density and lower quality Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following factors affects the screen speed?

Type of phosphor used Signup and view all the answers

What is the typical thickness of the phosphor layer in an intensifying screen?

150–300 µm Signup and view all the answers

Which material is commonly found in the reflective layer of an intensifying screen?

Magnesium oxide Signup and view all the answers

How does the absorbing layer in phosphor influence image quality?

It decreases screen speed Signup and view all the answers

What impact does increasing mottle have on image quality?

It negatively affects image sharpness Signup and view all the answers

What effect does the thickness of the reflective layer have on screen performance?

Thicker layers can cause greater quantum mottle Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of the phosphor materials in the intensifying screen?

To convert x-rays into visible light Signup and view all the answers

What is the main purpose of the rotor switch in x-ray generators?

To initiate the rotation of the anode in preparation for the exposure Signup and view all the answers

How is the spinning top in the spinning top test set in motion?

By spinning with a flip of the fingers Signup and view all the answers

What happens when the exposure switch is activated?

It results in the production of x-rays once the maximum RPM is reached Signup and view all the answers

Why are the rotor and exposure switches activated only when necessary?

To extend the lifespan of the x-ray tube Signup and view all the answers

What does the spinning top consist of?

Two metal parts - a round disk and a pedestal Signup and view all the answers

What is the pH range of an acidic chemical solution?

0 to 7 Signup and view all the answers

What is the appropriate pH for a developer in photographic processing?

9.6 to 10.6 Signup and view all the answers

Which type of wall color enhances reflectance of safelight in a darkroom?

Pastel and light colors Signup and view all the answers

What is the specific gravity limit for developer solutions?

0.004 Signup and view all the answers

What is a recommended characteristic for the finish of darkroom walls?

Matte finish Signup and view all the answers

What is the composition of gelatin used in film emulsions?

A colloid from cattle hooves and hide Signup and view all the answers

How does the film latitude relate to contrast in a radiographic emulsion?

Higher latitude decreases contrast Signup and view all the answers

What is the active ingredient in the silver halide crystals in film emulsions?

Silver bromide Signup and view all the answers

What role do sensitivity specks play in silver halide crystal structure?

They act as imperfections and increase sensitivity Signup and view all the answers

How does the speed of an emulsion impact the amount of required mAs for an examination?

Lower speed requires increased mAs Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between film latitude and gray scale?

Narrow latitude provides a short gray scale Signup and view all the answers

What can be derived from the equation relating new speed and old mAs?

New speed is inversely proportional to mAs Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of silver halide crystals in radiographic film?

To serve as energy detectors sensitive to radiation and light Signup and view all the answers

What results from the combination of AgNO3 and KBr during the formation of silver bromide?

Formation of potassium nitrate Signup and view all the answers

What does increasing the grain size of an emulsion typically lead to?

Lower image contrast Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of using an intensifying screen in radiographic film?

To convert x-ray energy to visible light Signup and view all the answers

What occurs with poor contact between the film and intensifying screen?

Localized blurring and loss of detail Signup and view all the answers

At what storage temperature should x-ray films be kept to slow the aging process?

0°C Signup and view all the answers

What is the consequence of storing films in areas exposed to radiation?

Rapid deterioration of film quality Signup and view all the answers

Why is it important to adhere to the 'first in, first out' system for film usage?

To ensure the oldest films are used first and prevent using expired films Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of the globular grains in fast light-sensitive film?

They assist in capturing quick exposures Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the radiation dose when using intensifying screens?

It decreases allowing lower technical factors Signup and view all the answers

What is a disadvantage of using intensifying screens?

Higher potential for quantum mottle Signup and view all the answers

How can one verify poor film-screen contact?

By radiographing a wire-mesh test Signup and view all the answers

What happens to film if it is warm before use again?

Its lifecycle shortens Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a recommended film storage practice?

Placing films in areas exposed to moisture Signup and view all the answers

What kind of phosphor is used for making rapid-processing film?

Calcium tungstate Signup and view all the answers

What type of film is sensitive to green light and not red, orange, or yellow?

Ortho film Signup and view all the answers

Why is it recommended to store x-ray films in their original packaging?

To prevent moisture penetration and check expiration date Signup and view all the answers

What is the main purpose of maintaining cleanliness in a darkroom?

To enhance the efficiency of film processing Signup and view all the answers

Which agent is recommended for cleaning surfaces in the darkroom?

70% isopropyl alcohol Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the light-tight entrance in a darkroom?

It prevents exposure of film to white light Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for an exposed film's increased sensitivity to subsequent exposure?

Latensification Signup and view all the answers

What structural feature can prevent accidental film exposure during transfers between darkroom sections?

An interlocking door system Signup and view all the answers

How often should visual examinations be conducted in a darkroom to ensure cleanliness?

Daily before each shift Signup and view all the answers

What type of system is used to facilitate film transfers without entering the darkroom?

Passbox Signup and view all the answers

Which disadvantage might occur with using a standard light-lock door?

Accidental film exposure Signup and view all the answers

Which cleaning method is advised for ensuring even application of cleaning agents?

Utilizing cotton balls Signup and view all the answers

What condition must be maintained in the darkroom to protect against carcinogenic fumes?

Adequate ventilation Signup and view all the answers

What is the main disadvantage of using an indirect safelight in a darkroom?

It requires a longer warm-up time. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of film sensitometry?

To measure film response to exposure and development. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a requirement for maintaining a darkroom environment?

Maintaining high humidity. Signup and view all the answers

What is the recommended maximum optical density (OD) increase for quality control?

0.15 OD Signup and view all the answers

When is the appropriate time to check for the processor’s maximum capacity during the processing workflow?

After the automatic processor has warmed up. Signup and view all the answers

What is the ideal distance for safelight illumination from the workbench?

3 to 4 feet Signup and view all the answers

What is the acceptable maximum fog level for safelight exposure measured in optical density (OD)?

0.04 OD Signup and view all the answers

Which type of filter is used to filter out red, orange, and yellow colors for blue-sensitive film?

Amber filter Signup and view all the answers

What is the weekly acceptable range for automatic processor temperature adjustment?

±0.3°C or 0.5°F Signup and view all the answers

What wattage is recommended for a tungsten bulb used in safelight systems at a distance of 3 feet?

7.5 watts Signup and view all the answers

What must be done if fog increases with continued exposure to safelight?

Consider the safelight unsafe Signup and view all the answers

How often should the replenishment rate in the processor be checked?

Weekly Signup and view all the answers

In a processor, which tank should be filled first during cleaning?

Fixer tank Signup and view all the answers

What is the advisable period for changing processing solutions in an automatic processor?

Every 6 months Signup and view all the answers

What is a consequence of using old or exhausted developer solutions?

Results in contaminated solutions Signup and view all the answers

Which component of x-ray film is primarily responsible for its sensitivity to radiation?

Emulsion layer Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of increasing exposure latitude on film contrast?

Decreases contrast Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary composition of silver halide crystals in x-ray film?

Silver bromide Signup and view all the answers

What happens to gelatin during the processing of x-ray film?

It swells and allows chemical penetration Signup and view all the answers

In terms of film latitude, what is characteristic of a high contrast emulsion?

Narrow latitude Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by the term 'sensitivity specks' in the context of silver halide crystals?

Imperfections in the crystal structure Signup and view all the answers

What ratio is used to calculate new mAs when converting from an old film speed to a new film speed?

New speed / Old speed x old mAs Signup and view all the answers

What can cause a high-speed film to have lower contrast compared to a slower film?

Increased grain size Signup and view all the answers

Which combination of chemicals produces silver bromide during the film making process?

KBr and AgNO3 Signup and view all the answers

What does an increase in the size of silver halide crystals typically result in?

Increased sensitivity but decreased resolution Signup and view all the answers

What is the main purpose of the sensitometer in the safelight test?

To create a step wedge exposure Signup and view all the answers

What is the maximum allowable fog contribution from the safelight during testing?

0.05 OD Signup and view all the answers

Which device is used to measure the density of exposed film?

Densitometer Signup and view all the answers

In the safelight test, how is film exposure progressively conducted?

By covering different sections of the film at intervals Signup and view all the answers

What is a recommended action regarding the darkroom environment in quality control?

Maintain it well ventilated Signup and view all the answers

How often should the safelight test be conducted?

Semi-annual Signup and view all the answers

What is an alternative device that can be used in place of a sensitometer?

Penetrometer Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the film after it is exposed for 4 minutes in the safelight test?

It is turned off the safelight and processed in the dark Signup and view all the answers

Which type of pump is most recommended for film processing?

Bellows-type pump Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the squeegee roller in the film processing workflow?

To remove excess moisture from film surfaces Signup and view all the answers

Which variable factor is NOT related to the speed of photographic screens?

Color of the film emulsion Signup and view all the answers

What is a common result of using fast screens with low mAs and high kV factors?

Increased quantum mottle Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the concept of 'lag' or 'afterglow' in phosphors?

Fluorescence after x-ray exposure ends Signup and view all the answers

What role do guide plates play in the film processing system?

They ensure the film's leading edge is properly guided Signup and view all the answers

What replenishment rate is typically established for processing films?

Based on chemistry required per inch of film travel Signup and view all the answers

What impact does diffusion have on recorded detail in imaging?

It decreases recorded detail Signup and view all the answers

The concept of perfect screen-film contact is critical for what purpose?

Maintaining recorded detail Signup and view all the answers

What type of roller facilitates the film's movement from one tank to another during processing?

Cross-over roller Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the function of the motor drive in a film processor?

Provides power for the roller assembly Signup and view all the answers

What do adjustments to the grid ratio in imaging typically affect?

Image detail and distortion Signup and view all the answers

Which type of replenishment is considered very rare in film processing?

Flood replenishment Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic is attributed to calcium tungstate phosphors?

Low conversion efficiency Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of the rotor switch in an x-ray generator?

To initiate the rotation of the anode before exposure Signup and view all the answers

What happens when the rotor switch is activated in an x-ray generator?

The anode begins to rotate at a constant speed Signup and view all the answers

During the spinning top test, what is the effect of making exposures while the top is spinning?

It provides a measure of exposure duration and timing Signup and view all the answers

What is the maximum anode rotation time achieved according to the described process?

Approximately 1 second Signup and view all the answers

Which component is responsible for producing x-rays when the exposure switch is activated?

The cathode Signup and view all the answers

What indicates that a timer is functioning normally during x-ray exposure?

Twelve dots for 1/10 sec exposure Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of automated exposure controls (AECs) in x-ray systems?

To automatically terminate exposure when the desired amount is reached Signup and view all the answers

What must be verified when using a calibrated oscilloscope with a 3-ø x-ray generator?

The accuracy of the actual exposure time compared to selected time Signup and view all the answers

Which device can be found in an automated exposure control system?

Ionization chamber or phototimer Signup and view all the answers

What role does the Potter-Bucky diaphragm play in radiographic systems?

To eliminate scatter radiation from the x-ray beam Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the tube housing in an x-ray tube?

To support the x-ray tube and protect from electrical hazards Signup and view all the answers

How does the angle of the anode in the x-ray tube affect the focal spot size?

It makes the effective focal spot size appear smaller Signup and view all the answers

Which material is used for the glass envelope in an x-ray tube to withstand high temperatures?

Pyrex glass Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes a stationary anode from a rotating anode in an x-ray tube?

Stationary anodes do not rotate and have reduced output Signup and view all the answers

What role does the focal track play in an x-ray tube?

It's the area of the anode that gets hit by electrons Signup and view all the answers

At what rotational speed does a rotating anode typically operate?

3,000 to 10,000 rpm Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the window in the glass envelope of an x-ray tube?

To allow for x-ray photons to pass easily Signup and view all the answers

What are the angles typically found on the edge of the anode in an x-ray tube?

8 to 20° / 9 to 15° Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the effective focal spot size as the angle of the anode increases?

It decreases, leading to better detail in images Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of the electrons that strike the anode target?

They are negative and participate in x-ray production Signup and view all the answers

What is the impact of reducing mAs on quantum mottle?

Increases quantum mottle Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following materials is used to produce high-speed screens in radiography?

Barium lead sulfate Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the ability of the screen to produce light in response to x-ray exposure?

Screen speed Signup and view all the answers

Which specific factor is used to calculate the intensification factor?

Exposure without screens divided by exposure with screens Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of barium fluorochloride in radiography?

Producing high-speed screens Signup and view all the answers

Which color emissions does thick film commonly utilize?

Blue, indigo, and violet Signup and view all the answers

Which layer in an intensifying screen is responsible for its light production?

Phosphor layer Signup and view all the answers

What does the standard intensification factor typically range between?

30 to 50 Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of a manual timer switch in x-ray imaging?

To terminate exposure if the AEC fails Signup and view all the answers

Which factor can be adjusted to change the density of an image when using AEC?

Changing density controls Signup and view all the answers

What happens when varying kVp is used with AEC?

It alters the penetrating ability of the beam Signup and view all the answers

What can lead to overexposure or underexposure in AECs?

Incorrect chamber selection or patient positioning Signup and view all the answers

What is a consequence of prolonged rotation with a hot filament in an x-ray tube?

Shortens the life of the anode and cathode filament Signup and view all the answers

Why is the precise positioning over the chambers important in AEC?

To maintain consistent image quality Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'image forming x-rays' refer to?

X-rays that exit the patient and reach the image receptor Signup and view all the answers

Which exposure time is typically recommended for optimal image capture when using low mA settings?

2 to 3 seconds Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary type of interaction that occurs when electrons strike the anode target during exposure?

Production of heat (~99%) Signup and view all the answers

What protective measure is used on the emulsion surface of the film?

A supercoat Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the x-rays after they are produced?

They travel in all directions Signup and view all the answers

Given the thickness of the film used in X-ray procedures, what is the typical range?

150 to 300 μm Signup and view all the answers

During the exposure process, how many volts (kilovolts) are typically applied to the electrodes?

Thousands of volts Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the rotor switch in an x-ray generator?

It initiates the rotation of the anode to prepare for exposure. Signup and view all the answers

How is the spinning top prepared for use during the evaluation of x-ray generators?

It must be spun manually to set it in motion. Signup and view all the answers

What happens when the exposure switch is activated?

X-rays are produced once the maximum RPM of the anode is reached. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the circular pedestal in the spinning top test?

It facilitates the smooth rotation of the top part. Signup and view all the answers

Why are both the rotor and exposure switches activated only when necessary?

To extend the life of the x-ray tube. Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the exposure switch in an x-ray production sequence?

To start the exposure of the film after preparation Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes x-ray photons?

They cannot be deflected by mirrors Signup and view all the answers

What occurs once the anode reaches the proper RPM during x-ray production?

Electrons are released from the cathode filament Signup and view all the answers

Which factor does NOT influence the quality of the x-ray beam emitted?

Color of the x-ray film Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of luminescence in x-ray imaging?

To produce visible light when x-ray photons interact with certain substances Signup and view all the answers

How does the rotation of the anode affect the x-ray production process?

It helps to distribute heat and prolong the life of the anode Signup and view all the answers

What is primarily recorded on the radiographic film?

The pattern of transmitted x-rays and light from the intensifying screens Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of thermionic emission in the x-ray tube?

It allows for the release of electrons from the hot cathode filament Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the aging process of x-ray film when the storage temperature increases?

The aging process accelerates. Signup and view all the answers

Which film characteristic is true of orhrochromatic film?

It is insensitive to red, orange, and yellow. Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant advantage of using intensifying screens in radiography?

They decrease radiation dose for the same image quality. Signup and view all the answers

How should films be stored to prevent pressure artifacts?

Stored vertically at the edge. Signup and view all the answers

What must be verified to ensure good contact between the film and intensifying screens?

Perform a wire-mesh test. Signup and view all the answers

What is the impact of poor film-screen contact during imaging?

Localized blurring on the image. Signup and view all the answers

What type of film is designed to use calcium tungstate phosphor for rapid processing?

Fast light-sensitive film. Signup and view all the answers

What is an essential practice for storing x-ray film?

Ensuring a controlled storage temperature and humidity. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about intensifying screens is false?

They reduce the efficiency of x-ray exposure. Signup and view all the answers

What is the appropriate storage temperature for x-ray film to minimize aging?

Between 20 °C to 25 °C. Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of using a protective barrier when storing x-ray films?

To protect films from light and radiation. Signup and view all the answers

What role does the active layer of an intensifying screen play?

It converts x-ray energy to visible light. Signup and view all the answers

Why should films be stored in their original packaging?

To maintain a record of their expiration date. Signup and view all the answers

What is an incorrect storage method for x-ray films?

Packing films tightly in a small container. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the protective coating on the intensifying screen?

To provide physical protection to the delicate phosphor layer Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is NOT considered when evaluating screen speed?

Thickness of reflective layer Signup and view all the answers

How does increasing the thickness of the phosphor layer affect screen speed and recorded detail?

Increases speed = decreases recorded detail Signup and view all the answers

What effect does an absorbing layer and dye in the phosphor have on screen speed?

Decreases screen speed and increases quantum mottle Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between the light emission of a screen and patient dose?

Higher screen speed results in lower patient dose Signup and view all the answers

Which phosphor material is known to produce the highest speed in an intensifying screen?

Rare earth compounds Signup and view all the answers

How does increasing screen speed typically affect image density?

Increases image density and lowers x-ray exposure Signup and view all the answers

What happens to recorded detail when screen speed is increased?

Recorded detail deteriorates due to quantum mottle Signup and view all the answers

Which component of the intensifying screen is primarily responsible for producing visible light?

Phosphor layer Signup and view all the answers

What is the consequence of increasing the mAs when utilizing high-speed screens?

Increases patient exposure without affecting image quality Signup and view all the answers

Which factor ensures that the anatomical part is in the correct orientation during radiographic exposure?

Proper positioning Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of the focusing cup in an x-ray tube?

To repel electrons towards the anode Signup and view all the answers

What technical competency involves adjusting variables to ensure optimal exposure?

Operation of the control panel Signup and view all the answers

What component of an x-ray system is primarily responsible for converting electrical energy into x-rays?

Anode Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a properly functioning x-ray tube?

Excessive motion during exposure Signup and view all the answers

What primarily occurs when the exposure switch is activated?

Current flows from the (–) cathode to the (+) anode target. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary interaction that occurs when electrons strike the anode target?

Production of heat and x-rays. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about x-ray production is correct?

X-rays travel in all directions after production. Signup and view all the answers

Which layer of the x-ray film composition serves as the protective layer over the sensitive emulsion?

Overcoat layer. Signup and view all the answers

What is the typical thickness range of the x-ray film used in this process?

150 to 300 μm. Signup and view all the answers

Which film speed typically indicates an average sensitivity?

100 Signup and view all the answers

Which material is commonly used as a polymer matrix in film composition?

Polyester Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the blue tint in radiographic film?

Improves contrast Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the historical evolution of film types?

Glass plate → Cellulose acetate → Cellulose triacetate → Polyester Signup and view all the answers

How is film speed categorized in radiographic film?

Using arbitrary numerical designations Signup and view all the answers

What impact does high contrast emulsion typically have on radiographic images?

Enhances image clarity Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant feature of polyester in film composition?

It provides superior physical stability Signup and view all the answers

What function does preheating the anode target area serve?

Minimizes thermal damage Signup and view all the answers

What effect does increasing film latitude have on image contrast?

Decreases contrast Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary material used in the composition of radiographic film emulsion?

Silver bromide Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the gelatin used in radiographic film during processing?

It swells and rehardens Signup and view all the answers

How does the size of silver halide crystals in film relate to film contrast?

Uniform small crystals produce high contrast Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between the speed of the film and mAs when changing from one speed to another?

Higher speed requires lower mAs Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following characteristics describes a high contrast emulsion?

Short gray scale Signup and view all the answers

What role do sensitivity specks play in the performance of silver halide crystals?

They increase the film's sensitivity to radiation Signup and view all the answers

What is film latitude usually measured in relation to?

Range of x-ray exposures Signup and view all the answers

How is the mixture of silver nitrate and potassium bromide related to the formation of silver bromide?

It results in light-sensitive crystals Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of a film with a narrow latitude?

It produces a high contrast image Signup and view all the answers

What is the typical thickness range of the phosphor layer used in intensifying screens?

150 to 300 µm Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic of a good phosphor has a direct relationship with its atomic number?

Detective quantum efficiency Signup and view all the answers

Which property defines the phosphor's ability to emit light during and shortly after x-ray exposure?

Fluorescence Signup and view all the answers

Which type of phosphor emits light even after the x-ray exposure has ended?

Phosphorescent Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary factor affecting the quality of imaging when using intensifying screens?

Spectral matching Signup and view all the answers

What is the main advantage of using rare earth phosphors in radiography?

Increased conversion efficiency Signup and view all the answers

What happens to quantum mottle with an increase in milliampere seconds (mAs)?

Decreases Signup and view all the answers

Which type of phosphor typically exhibits significant afterglow and screen lag?

Calcium tungstate Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between the conversion efficiency of a phosphor and its x-ray energy requirement?

Higher conversion efficiency requires less x-ray energy Signup and view all the answers

Which material is NOT typically used in the composition of a phosphor layer?

Selenium Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of the rotor switch in the x-ray system?

To rotate the anode in preparation for exposure Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the exposure switch in the x-ray system?

To allow for maximum tube current flow during exposure Signup and view all the answers

What is the proper sequence of steps for using the spinning top test in x-ray evaluation?

Set the top, make exposures while it spins, and then observe the rotation Signup and view all the answers

How long does it typically take for maximum anode rotation to be accomplished in the x-ray system?

Around 1 second Signup and view all the answers

What should be done before making an exposure while using the spinning top?

Activate the rotor switch to begin anode rotation Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the milliampere (mA) selector in an x-ray generator?

It selects the electrical current flowing through the cathode filament. Signup and view all the answers

Where is the ionization chamber located in relation to the patient during x-ray exposure?

Between the cassette holder and the patient. Signup and view all the answers

What happens when a sufficient amount of light reaches the photomultiplier in a pulse-counter device?

It terminates exposure. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the placement of the pulse-counter device in an x-ray setup?

Behind the cassette, in the primary x-ray beam. Signup and view all the answers

How does selecting a high milliampere (mA) value affect the focal spot size in x-ray imaging?

It produces a larger focal spot. Signup and view all the answers

What does 'exposure latitude' refer to in x-ray film?

The range of densities that can be recorded on the film Signup and view all the answers

Which layer of x-ray film is primarily responsible for providing protection to the sensitive emulsion layer beneath it?

Supercoat Signup and view all the answers

What is the impact of high contrast emulsions on radiographic images?

They provide good quality images with clear differences. Signup and view all the answers

Which innovation in x-ray film technology occurred in 1914?

Cellulose nitrate film base Signup and view all the answers

What does an increase in film speed generally indicate?

Increased sensitivity allowing for lower exposure requirements Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of films with wide exposure latitude?

They can tolerate variations in exposure factors. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about film contrast is true?

Film contrast reflects the ability to differentiate between densities. Signup and view all the answers

What determines the film speed in x-ray film?

The size of the silver halide crystals Signup and view all the answers

Which statements accurately describe low contrast emulsions?

They typically yield images of poor quality. Signup and view all the answers

What role does the adhesive layer in x-ray film play?

It allows the layers to bond together. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason for storing x-ray films vertically?

To avoid pressure artifacts Signup and view all the answers

Which type of x-ray film base is known for its insulation against red, orange, and yellow light?

Ortho-chromatic film Signup and view all the answers

What is the preferred storage temperature to prevent aging of the film?

0°C Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following conditions may result from poor film-screen contact?

Localized loss of recorded detail Signup and view all the answers

What should be done with expired x-ray films?

Return them for silver recovery Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of intensifying screens in x-ray imaging?

To convert x-ray energy to visible light Signup and view all the answers

What is a disadvantage of using intensifying screens?

Increased quantum mottle Signup and view all the answers

What material is commonly used to protect x-ray films from light and radiation during storage?

Polyethylene bags Signup and view all the answers

What should be noted on the packaging of x-ray films?

The expiration date Signup and view all the answers

In what scenario should double-emulsion film be used with intensifying screens?

When requiring detailed images Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following storage practices should be avoided to maintain film quality?

Stack films horizontally Signup and view all the answers

What factor should be considered when determining the lifespan of an x-ray film?

The temperature during storage Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of agitation in the chemical solutions during film processing?

It provides thorough mixing of chemicals to ensure proper reaction. Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'time-temperature relationship' refer to in film processing?

The impact of temperature on the development time for consistent results. Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'first in, first out' system refer to in film handling?

Ensuring the oldest films are used first Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect is critical for minimizing contamination of chemicals during the film processing?

Consistent transportation of film without spilling chemicals. Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic of intensifying screens helps to improve radiographic imaging?

Lowering exposure time Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of replenishment in the film processing system?

To ensure that the volume and strength of solutions remain adequate. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary advantage of the cascade compartment type processing system?

It can operate effectively in a smaller physical space. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of a back-up timer in x-ray systems?

To terminate exposure if the AEC fails Signup and view all the answers

How can the penetration ability of the x-ray beam be altered during exposure?

By varying the kVp settings Signup and view all the answers

What effect does adjusting density controls on AEC have?

It allows density to be increased or decreased by 25% per step Signup and view all the answers

What is the consequence of using AECs with improper chamber selection?

Causes overexposure or underexposure Signup and view all the answers

What is the recommended kVp range when using low mA settings for exposures?

65 to 70 kVp Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a potential issue if a tube is not used for several hours?

Need for additional warm-up time Signup and view all the answers

What is a critical aspect for achieving high quality radiographs?

Proper chamber selection and positioning Signup and view all the answers

What type of radiographic images are characterized by consistency across examinations?

Images achieved by using AEC with proper settings Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of maintaining cleanliness in a darkroom?

To ensure efficient film processing Signup and view all the answers

Which method is most commonly used to clean the darkroom surfaces?

70% isopropyl alcohol Signup and view all the answers

What type of door system helps prevent accidental film exposure in a darkroom?

Passbox system Signup and view all the answers

What does 'latensification' refer to in the context of film processing?

Increased sensitivity of an exposed film to further exposure Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant disadvantage of using a labyrinth or maze entry in a darkroom?

Need for more space to accommodate it Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a requirement for the darkroom's environment?

Strong ventilation to remove fumes Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of a light-lock door in a darkroom?

To prevent light from entering when one door is open Signup and view all the answers

What is a recommended action for preventing contamination during film handling?

Wearing gloves at all times Signup and view all the answers

Which type of cleaning agent is suggested for regular use in the darkroom?

Mild soap and water Signup and view all the answers

How often should regular visual examinations be conducted in a darkroom?

As needed to monitor for dirt or specks Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of a safelight in a processing environment?

To illuminate the area without damaging the film Signup and view all the answers

What is the weekly requirement for maintaining automatic processor temperature?

Must be within ±0.3°C Signup and view all the answers

Which filter effectively eliminates red, orange, and yellow colors for blue-sensitive film?

Amber filter Signup and view all the answers

What safety hazard is indicated if safelight fog present on film increases with continued exposure?

The safelight is unsafe for use Signup and view all the answers

What wattage is required for a tungsten bulb when located 4 ft from the workbench?

15 watts Signup and view all the answers

What is the consequence of using old or exhausted developer in a replenishment system?

Impairs chemical activity Signup and view all the answers

How often should the replenishment rate for a developer be checked?

Weekly Signup and view all the answers

What is an advisable period for changing processing solutions in an automatic processor?

Every 6 months Signup and view all the answers

What is the specific distance a safelight should be placed from the feed tray of the automatic processor?

3 to 4 ft Signup and view all the answers

What type of fog measurement is considered acceptable for film safety?

0.04 OD Signup and view all the answers

Which type of pump is most recommended for film processing?

bellows-type pump Signup and view all the answers

What role does the squeegee roller perform in the film processing system?

It removes excess moisture from film surfaces. Signup and view all the answers

What does 'flood replenishment' refer to in film processing?

Rare replenishment of processing chemicals. Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect does NOT influence image quality according to the variables of photographic properties?

Chemical composition Signup and view all the answers

Which type of roller is responsible for moving film from one tank to another?

crossover roller Signup and view all the answers

What occurs when the phosphors experience 'lag or afterglow'?

Phosphors continue to fluoresce post-exposure. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the microswitch in an automatic processor?

To regulate the replenishment rate of chemicals. Signup and view all the answers

How does an increase in mAs typically affect recorded detail in imaging?

Increases recorded detail and contrast. Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the guide plates found in the roller assembly?

To guide the leading edge of the moving film. Signup and view all the answers

Which factor does NOT affect the screen-film contact quality?

Photographic chemicals used Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of using fast screens on the required exposure values?

Decreases mAs and increases kV Signup and view all the answers

What happens when the SID (Source-to-Image Distance) is increased?

Detail increases but distortion decreases. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of roller is specifically used to turn the film direction during transport?

turnaround roller Signup and view all the answers

What is the typical time range for processing a single piece of film using an automatic processor?

45 seconds to 3.5 minutes Signup and view all the answers

Which system within an automatic processor is responsible for adding fresh developer and fixer solution?

Replenishment system Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the dryer system in an automatic processor?

To dry the film at approximately 120°F Signup and view all the answers

In the context of automatic processors, what does 'dry-to-drop time' refer to?

The time to process a single film Signup and view all the answers

What was the significant advancement introduced by Eastman Kodak in 1956?

First roller transport system Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is crucial in maintaining the consistency of the processing cycle in an automatic processor?

Temperature of the developer solution Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the recirculation system in an automatic processor?

To filter and stabilize the temperature of the developer solution Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential problem if film is fed into the processor prematurely?

Overlapping of the film during processing Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the transport system in an automatic processor?

To move film through various processing stages Signup and view all the answers

What is the standard size of most automatic processors?

24 inches Signup and view all the answers

Which temperature range is typical for the developer solution in an automatic processor?

33.8 to 35°C Signup and view all the answers

What does the clearing agent do during the processing cycle?

Removes unwanted chemicals from the film Signup and view all the answers

In processing systems, what could occur if film movement speed is inconsistent?

Inconsistent film development Signup and view all the answers

What is known as clear time in an automatic processor?

The time to clear residual chemicals before drying Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of maintaining a consistent temperature in the processing system?

To control the density of bromide crystals Signup and view all the answers

What role does agitation of chemical solutions play in the processing system?

It ensures adequate mixing of the fixer solution Signup and view all the answers

How does the replenishment process benefit the chemical solutions used in film processing?

It sustains the volume and strength of the solutions Signup and view all the answers

What is a key advantage of a compact processing system in terms of space?

It requires minimal physical space to operate Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of controlling the transportation of film through the manual processing system?

It ensures consistent development time in the developer and fixer Signup and view all the answers

Which material is commonly used to produce high-speed screens in radiography?

Barium lead sulfate Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of reducing mAs on patient dose during an x-ray procedure?

Decreases patient dose Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'intensification factor' refer to in radiography?

Light emitted by the screen to produce an image Signup and view all the answers

Which type of film is noted for having globular grains and responds well to x-rays?

Blue-sensitive film Signup and view all the answers

What happens to quantum mottle when mAs is decreased?

Increases due to insufficient exposure Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about screen speed is correct?

Screen speed determines the amount of light produced by the screen Signup and view all the answers

What is indicated by the term 'relative speed value' in radiography?

Comparative measure of screen speed Signup and view all the answers

What determines the capability of a film to absorb light?

Film speed Signup and view all the answers

What is thermionic emission in radiography?

The mechanism by which electrons are emitted when the filament is heated Signup and view all the answers

Which filament directs electrons to a smaller area on the target?

Small filament Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the focusing cup in radiography?

To concentrate the space charge on the target area Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes a radiograph?

An image produced using x-radiation Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during the space charge effect in radiography?

Further thermionic emission is halted by existing electrons Signup and view all the answers

Who are radiologic technologists?

Professionals skilled in using medical imaging technologies Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the x-ray tube serves as the source of electrons?

Filament Signup and view all the answers

What is one primary characteristic of radiography?

It requires both artistic skill and scientific knowledge Signup and view all the answers

What does the space charge consist of in an x-ray tube?

A cloud of stationary electrons around the filament Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following options describes the focus of the small filament in x-ray technology?

Directs electrons to a smaller area Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of the milliampere second meter in an x-ray generator?

To indicate the total current passing through the x-ray tube Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the protective coating on an intensifying screen?

To provide physical protection to the phosphor layer Signup and view all the answers

Which type of exposure timer is known for its accuracy and reliability?

Electronic timer Signup and view all the answers

What happens to image quality as screen speed increases?

Image density increases but quality decreases Signup and view all the answers

What does the kilovoltage selector in an x-ray generator control?

The energy of the x-rays produced during exposure Signup and view all the answers

How is the total amount of tube current during exposure generally measured?

In milliampere seconds (mAs) Signup and view all the answers

Which factor does NOT impact the screen speed of an intensifying screen?

Thickness of the protective coating Signup and view all the answers

How does an increase in the thickness of the phosphor layer affect quantum mottle?

It increases quantum mottle and reduces recorded detail Signup and view all the answers

What does the kV minor selector specifically adjust in an x-ray generator?

Very small voltage changes of 1 to 2 kV Signup and view all the answers

Which phosphor material is mentioned as having an impact on speed and quality?

Calcium tungstate Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the on/off switch in an x-ray generator?

To disconnect the electrical power for maintenance purposes Signup and view all the answers

Which type of timer uses 60-Hz AC and has settings related to 1/60 s?

Synchronous timer Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of using a reflective layer made of magnesium oxide?

It increases screen speed Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about phosphor layer thickness is true?

Increasing thickness can lead to higher screen speed Signup and view all the answers

In an x-ray generator, what is indicated by the kilovoltage meter?

The voltage expected to pass across the x-ray tube Signup and view all the answers

What is the impact of using rare earth phosphors compared to traditional phosphors?

They improve screen speed and reduce patient dose Signup and view all the answers

What is the shortest setting typically available for mechanical timers?

1/10 s Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between screen speed and patient dose?

Increased screen speed generally leads to lower patient dose Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the absorbing layer in the context of phosphor screens?

To absorb excess x-rays and protect the phosphor Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of varying kVp when using AEC on the density of the radiographic image?

It does not change the density, but affects contrast. Signup and view all the answers

How can changing density controls on AEC affect the imaging process?

They allow density adjustments of approximately 25% per step. Signup and view all the answers

What is the recommended exposure time when using low milliamperes (mA) during radiographic procedures?

2 to 3 seconds Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a common error that can lead to overexposure in AEC?

Inadequate patient positioning Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of having a back-up timer in the context of AEC?

To terminate exposure in case of AEC failure Signup and view all the answers

When should an x-ray tube be warmed up again after being unused for several hours?

After 2 to 3 hours Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is crucial for obtaining high-quality radiographs during the procedure?

Appropriate chamber selection Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the life span of the anode and cathode filament when prolonged rotation occurs with a 'hot' filament?

It shortens the lifespan. Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of reducing the milliampere-seconds (mAs) on image quality in x-ray imaging?

It increases quantum mottle Signup and view all the answers

Which material is commonly used to produce high-speed screens in x-ray imaging?

Barium lead sulfate Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of screen speed in radiographic imaging?

To determine the ability of the screen to produce light Signup and view all the answers

Which factor affects the increase in the intensification factor in x-ray imaging?

Greater x-ray to light conversion percentage Signup and view all the answers

The standard intensification factor is within which range for x-ray imaging?

30 to 50 Signup and view all the answers

What type of film is primarily used with blue-sensitive films in x-ray imaging?

High-speed films Signup and view all the answers

What effect do broad band emissions in x-ray screens have?

They can cause film fogging Signup and view all the answers

Which emulsions are most commonly associated with high contrast in x-ray images?

Fast-speed emulsions Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the Kodak GBX-2 filter in photographic processing?

To filter out yellow and orange light Signup and view all the answers

What is the pH range of a developer used in photographic processing?

9.6 to 10.6 Signup and view all the answers

Which wall color is recommended to increase the reflectance of safelight in a darkroom?

Ivory or light gray Signup and view all the answers

What is the acceptable pH range for a fixer in photographic processing?

4.2 to 4.9 Signup and view all the answers

What is a common practice for maintaining the specific gravity of a developer?

It must not exceed 0.004 Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of a light-tight entrance in a darkroom?

To prevent exposure of film to white light Signup and view all the answers

Which type of door system helps prevent accidental film exposure during the transfer of films in a darkroom?

Light-lock door or double door Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of regular visual examinations in the darkroom?

To identify and remove any dirty spots or specks Signup and view all the answers

What cleaning agent is recommended to shorten the drying time of surfaces in the darkroom?

70% isopropyl alcohol or 95% alcohol Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential disadvantage of a labyrinth or maze system in a darkroom?

Could complicate access in emergency situations Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following items is crucial for identifying stains in the darkroom?

UV light Signup and view all the answers

Why must a darkroom be cleaned on a regular basis?

To prevent contamination of film and processing Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic does a revolving door provide in a darkroom environment?

Prevents light exposure Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of using 70% isopropyl alcohol during cleaning in the darkroom?

To disinfect surfaces thoroughly Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'latensification' refer to in the context of radiographic film?

Increasing sensitivity of exposed film to light Signup and view all the answers

What should films be stored at to prevent the aging process from accelerating?

0°C Signup and view all the answers

Which film type is described as insensitive to red, orange, and yellow light?

Orthochromatic Film Signup and view all the answers

What is a recommended practice for storing radiographic film?

Store vertically at the edge Signup and view all the answers

What does an intensifying screen do?

Converts x-ray energy to visible light Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the storage method for expired films?

They should be returned to the manufacturer Signup and view all the answers

What is the impact of poor contact between the film and the intensifying screen?

Causes localized loss of recorded detail Signup and view all the answers

What type of barrier is recommended for protecting films from radiation?

Protective barriers, including lead shields Signup and view all the answers

Which materials are commonly used in the active layer of intensifying screens?

Calcium tungstate phosphors Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of increasing film temperature on the aging process?

It accelerates the aging process Signup and view all the answers

When verifying poor film-screen contact, which test can be performed?

Wire-mesh test Signup and view all the answers

What is a common disadvantage of using intensifying screens?

Decreased image quality due to quantum mottle Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following storage practices helps maintain film integrity over time?

Follow a 'first in, first out' system Signup and view all the answers

What minimum radiation level should be maintained while storing films?

12 µR Signup and view all the answers

What happens to films when they are stored improperly in light or moisture?

They may deteriorate or become unusable Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

X-Ray Tube Components and Function

When the exposure switch is activated, current flows from the negative cathode to the positive anode target.
Electrons move at high speeds due to the thousands of volts (kilovolts) applied to the electrodes during exposure.
Electrons striking the anode target (focal spot) result in heat production (~99%) and x-ray production (~1%).
X-rays travel in all directions; most are absorbed by the lead tube housing.
Useful x-rays are those that pass through the tube window and housing port (primary x-ray beam), strike the patient and produce a radiograph (remnant beam).

Radiographic Film Components

X-ray film consists of a flexible, transparent base coated with a sensitive emulsion on both sides.
The base provides support and shape, preventing bending and sustaining the emulsion.
The base is typically made of polyester, ensuring lucency, dimensional stability, and appropriate exposure latitude for image recording.
The emulsion layer contains silver halide crystals, primarily silver bromide and silver iodide, responsible for capturing x-ray energy.
A supercoat, a durable protective layer, prevents damage to the sensitive emulsion layer underneath it.

Radiographic Film Characteristics

Film speed refers to the emulsion's sensitivity to x-rays or light.
Increased speed means greater sensitivity, requiring less exposure to produce a specific density.
Primary factors affecting film speed:
- Silver halide crystal size
- Crystal distribution within the emulsion
Film contrast refers to the inherent ability to record minute density differences across the film.
High-contrast emulsions produce high-quality images, while low-contrast emulsions produce poor-quality images.

Radiographic Film History

1895: Photographic glass plates were introduced.
1914: Cellulose nitrate film base replaced glass, but proved highly flammable.
1918: Duplitized films reduced exposure needs.
1933: Tinted film base enhanced viewing.
1936: Direct exposure film revolutionized imaging.
1940: Film suitable for both direct and indirect exposure became available.
1958: Fast light-sensitive film emerged.
1960s: Polyester film base and rapid processing film revolutionized workflow.

Types of Radiographic Film

Direct Exposure: Designed for direct exposure to radiation with minimal light sensitivity
Screen Film: Requires intensifying screens for optimal image recording
Duplitized Film: Contains two layers of emulsion, allowing for faster exposure times

Storage and Care of Radiographic Film

Store films at 0°C to halt the aging process.
Warmed film should be brought to room temperature (35°C or 85°F) before use.
Higher temperatures accelerate aging.
Store films in their original packaging to track the expiration date.
Follow "first in, first out" storage practices to prevent expired film usage.
Discard expired films or return them to a manufacturer for silver recovery.
Store films vertically, at the edge, or upright to avoid pressure artifacts.
Use photo-inert leaves of paper between films to prevent sticking.
Protect films from radiation in radiation areas or use protective barriers.
Maintain a 12 µR limit for radiation exposure during storage.

Safelight Protection

Direct safelight fixture type distributes light directly.
Indirect safelight fixture type uses a ceiling source, reflecting light downward, using a sodium vapor bulb. Distance from the workbench should be 6 feet.

Darkroom and Automatic Processor Quality Control

General Darkroom Maintenance: Maintain a clean, well-ventilated, organized, and safe darkroom environment
Darkroom Environment: Perform daily checks including:
- Darkroom light leak checks
- Cleanliness of the darkroom
Automatic Processor
- Daily Checks:
  - Perform a daily cleaning check, early in the morning
  - Run a cleaning cycle after reaching maximum capacity or upon initial warm-up
- Weekly Checks:
  - Monitor density readings and ensure they remain within the acceptable range.
Film Sensitometry: Measures film speed, contrast, latitude, and hydroquinone contrast.

Intensifying Screens

Intensifying Screens: Convert x-ray energy into visible light, amplifying the x-ray effect on radiographic film.
Fluoresce & Phosphoresce: Screens fluoresce but not phosphoresce, emitting light only during exposure.
Composition: Made of a polyester base with an active layer containing phosphors that emit visible light when struck by x-rays.
Cassette Mounting: Screens are typically mounted inside the cassette in pairs for double-emulsion films.
Film-Screen Contact: Requires perfect contact to prevent loss of recorded detail and image blurring.
Wire-Mesh Test: Verifies film-screen contact by radiographing a wire mesh.
Advantages: Reduced radiation exposure, lower technical factors, increased tube life.
Disadvantages: Increased quantum mottle (graininess) and decreased image quality.

Intensifying Screen Layers

Protective Layer: Made of a thin, tough substance, protects from scratches and abrasion.
Phosphor Layer: Contains the phosphor crystals that emit visible light.
Reflective Lamination: A white reflective layer increases light output by directing more emitted light toward the film.
Base Layer: A strong, flexible base made of polyester.

Darkroom Lighting - Safelight

Darkroom Lighting: Safelights are used to provide illumination for the darkroom while preventing fogging of the film.
Types of Safelights: Direct safelights distribute light directly, while indirect safelights reflect light from the ceiling.
Safelight Color and Filters: Red or amber safelights are used with most x-ray films due to their insensitivity to those wavelengths.
Distance and Safelight Strength: The distance between the safelight and the work area should be at least four feet to minimize the risk of fogging. The safelight should be sufficiently dim to avoid excessive exposure to the film.

X-ray Production

The control panel of an x-ray generator unit is familiar to radiographers.
The control panel includes the on/off switch, the exposure timer, milliampere selector, mA/mAs meter, kilovoltage selector, kV meter, rotor switch, and accessory controls.
The control panel is where the radiographer selects the settings for the x-ray exposure.
The on/off switch connects the electrical power to the x-ray generator and should be turned on early in the morning to warm up the generator.
The exposure timer determines the length of time that x-rays will be produced.
There are three types of timers: mechanical, synchronous, and electronic.
Mechanical timers are similar to spring-set dials with a minimum setting of 1/10 second.
Synchronous timers are motor driven, utilizing the 60-Hz AC, with intervals related to 1/60 second and a minimum setting of 1/120 second.
Electronic timers are the most common type, known for their accuracy and reliability. These timers have complex circuitry and a minimum setting of less than 1/120 second.
Timers are evaluated periodically to ensure accuracy.
Milliampere (mA) selection determines the amount of electrical current that needs to flow through the cathode filament.
The mA selector has a range of 25 to 2000 mA.
The selection of mA affects focal spot size: low current for a small focal spot and high current for a large focal spot.
Kilovoltage (kV) selection permits an increase or decrease in the voltage across the x-ray tube during the exposure.
The kV meter is a "prereading" volt meter that gives a reading during kV selection.
The kV meter indicates the amount of potential difference (PD) or voltage that will move across the x-ray tube during the exposure.

Imaging System: X-ray Film

X-ray film is the image receptor that records the image based on the pattern of transmitted x-rays and light produced by the intensifying screens.
The darkroom is designed for handling and storage of x-ray film.
The darkroom should be light-tight to protect the film from exposure to white light and ionizing radiation during handling and processing.
The darkroom must be clean and uncluttered to prevent scratches and dirt on the film.
The darkroom must have a light-tight entrance to prevent any exposure to light.
The darkroom must be equipped with a processing tank system for initial and final washing and using hyponeutralizer.

Automatic Processors

Automatic processors are devices that standardize the processing of radiographs with consistency and efficiency.
Automatic processors have a roller transport system, chemical tanks, and a dryer system.
The transport system moves the film through the processor and agitates the chemistry.
The replenishment system adds fresh developer and fixer solution for each film as it is fed into the processor.
The recirculation system agitates and filters the developer solution, stabilizes solution temperature, and prevents stratification of chemicals in the tank.
The dryer system dries the film at approximately 120°F after it leaves the wash tank.
The transport system advances the film through the processor at a consistent speed.
The transport system also agitates the solution to help maintain the temperature.
There are different types of automatic processors, including standard size (24 inches/corner) and double capacity processors.

Rotating Anode

Circular, disk-like structure with a beveled edge.
Receives electrons as they move from the cathode to the anode.
Made of tungsten, which can withstand tremendous heat.
Angles on the edge of the anode range between 8-20° and 9-15°.
Rotates at speeds of 3,000 to 10,000 rpm.
The rotation distributes heat to a larger area, preventing overheating.
Focal spot refers to the area of the focal track that is struck by electrons.
Focal track is the circumference of the anode disk.

Line-Focus Principle

The angling of the anode target area creates the effect of a smaller effective focal spot.
This results in a sharper image.
Actual focal spot is the area being struck by electrons.
Effective focal spot is the area directly below the target, projected towards the window.
The angle also allows for greater heat dissipation.

Stationary Anode

Similar design to the rotating anode, but without rotating capacity.
Reduced output compared to rotating anode.
Long shaft of copper with tungsten target embedded in the slanted surface.
Often found in dental x-ray units and some mobile radiographic units.

Cathode

Negative electrode.
Consists of two metal parts: a round disk with a small hole near the edge, and a circular pedestal.

Spinning Top Test

Used to evaluate single-phase, full-wave rectified x-ray generators.
Comprises two metal parts.
Steps for performing the test:
- Place the spinning top on the cassette with film.
- Spin the top by flicking with fingers and take exposures while it's spinning.

Rotor and Exposure Switch

Rotor Switch:
- Initiates the rotation of the anode in preparation for exposure.
- Maximum anode rotation is achieved within a second.
- Rotor activation allows full current to flow to the cathode, causing it to heat up and turn bright red.
Exposure Switch:
- Activated when the anode reaches its maximum RPM.
- Results in x-ray production.
Both switches are activated only when necessary to prolong the life of the x-ray tube.

Exposure Factors

Exposures are made with low mA (50-100 mA), large focal spot, low to moderate kVp (65-70 kV), and long exposure time (2-3 seconds).
3-4 exposures are taken with several seconds between each.
Warm up the tube again if not used for several hours before using it.

AEC Chambers

Selection:
- Radiographer sets the optimal kVp, while the machine controls the mAs.
- Varying kVp when using AEC does not alter density but contrast is affected.
- Varying kVp alters the beam's penetrating ability, resulting in faster or shorter exposure time.
Density Control:
- Changing density controls allows for ↑ or ↓ density.
- Each step signifies a 25% change in density.
- Image quality in AEC remains consistent from examination to examination.
Requirements:
- Proper chambers must be selected, and the patient must be positioned over the chambers.
Overexposure or underexposure:
- Caused by improper chamber selection or patient positioning errors.

Characteristics of X-Radiation

Key points:
- X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation vital for assisting physicians in diagnosing diseases and disorders.
- Radiographers must follow safety guidelines for time, distance, and shielding.
Image-forming X-rays:
- Exit the patient and interact with the image receptor.

Film Composition

Basic Parts:
- Base and Emulsion
Other Parts:
- Adhesive Layer and Overcoat.

Screen Speed

Screen speed describes the capacity of the screen to produce visible light.
↑ screen speed = ↑ light emission = ↑ density = ↓ quality.
Screen factors:
- Type of phosphor used.
- Thickness of phosphor.
- Crystal size.
- Reflective Layer.
- Absorbing layer and dye in phosphor.

Phosphor Materials:

Calcium Tungstate:
- Introduced by Thomas A. Edison.
- Emits blue light.
Rare Earth:
- Emits green light.
- More efficient in converting x-ray photons to light photons, offering a higher speed (higher density) and lower patient dose.

Summary of Phosphor Materials and Screen Speed

Phosphor Material, Speed, Detail, Dose, Mottle
Calcium Tungstate: ↑ Phosphor Layer Thickness = ↑ Speed = ↓ detail = ↓ Dose = ↑ Mottle
Rare Earth: ↑ Phosphor Layer Thickness = ↑ Speed = ↓ detail = ↓ Dose = ↑ Mottle

Spinning Top Test

Used to evaluate single-phase, full-wave rectified X-ray generators
Consists of two metal parts:
- Top part: 3-inch round disk with a small hole near the edge
- Circular pedestal: where the top part rests and rotates freely
Steps:
- Place spinning top on top of the cassette with film.
- Spin the top using your fingers and make exposures while it is spinning.
- The mAs is calculated during exposure.

Rotor and Exposure Switch

Rotor switch:
- Initiates the rotation of the anode in preparation for exposure.
- Maximum anode rotation is achieved in approximately 1 second.
- Activation of the rotor allows full current to flow to the cathode, causing it to heat up and turn bright red.
Exposure switch:
- Activated when the maximum RPM of the anode is reached.
- Results in the production of x-rays.
Both switches are only activated when necessary to extend the life of the x-ray tube.

Film Latitude

Margin of error in technical factors that the film allows while still producing an acceptable range of densities.
Inherent characteristic of the film emulsion that allows a moderate range of densities to be recorded.
Range of exposures which produce optical density within the straight-line region or diagnostic range of the sensitometric curve.
Inversely proportional to contrast:
- Increased latitude equals decreased contrast.
Ability of film to record an acceptable range of densities:
- Narrow film latitude: high contrast emulsion, "short" gray scale.
- Wide film latitude: low contrast emulsion, "long" gray scale.

Types of X-ray Film

Storage temperature: 0°C to stop aging process.
- Film should be warmed to room temperature (35°C or 85°F) before use.
Increased temperature results in accelerated aging.
Store film in original packaging to note expiration date.
Adhere to “first in, first out” or “last in, last out” system.
Expired films are discarded.

Preventing Film Pressure

Store films vertically at the edge.
May or may not be separated by photo-inert leaves of paper to prevent films from sticking together.

Protecting Film from Radiation

Films are packed in a photo-inert polyethylene bag or metal foil to protect them from light, radiation, and moisture.
Store away films from radiation areas or use protective barriers.
12 µR limit.
Store chemicals away from the films.

Intensifying Screens

Used since the 1900s.
Act as a transducer: convert x-ray energy to light to expose radiographic film.
Intensify the action of X-rays.
Fluoresce but not phosphoresce.
Consist of polyester base with an active layer containing phosphors that produce visible light when struck by x-rays.
Typically mounted inside the cassette in pairs for use with double-emulsion film.
Perfect contact between the screens and the film is essential. Poor contact results in:
- Localized loss of recorded detail.
- Localized blurring on the image.
Poor film-screen contact can be verified by radiographing a wire-mesh test.
Allows for 15 to 20 times less radiation exposure.
Advantages:
- Decreased radiation dose, decreased technical factors, increased tube life.
Disadvantages:
- Increased quantum mottle, decreased image quality.

Layers of the Intensifying Screen

Cleanliness:
- Darkroom efficiency relates to its cleanliness.
- Uncluttered countertops.
Light-tight entrance:
- Single door: simplest type, requires a passbox to transfer films without entering the darkroom.
- Interlocking system: prevents opening the passbox when one side is open, door should be weatherized.
- Light, not heavy door with a locking mechanism that engages when the storage bin is open, preventing the door from opening.
- Disadvantage: Accidental film exposure.
Light-lock door or double door:
- Used only when there is dedicated darkroom personnel.
- If door 1 is open, door 2 automatically locks.
- Fresh films located on the left side, exposed films on the right.
Labyrinth or maze:
- Easy access, zigzag type, no door.
- Used only on large darkrooms as the design requires more space.
Revolving door:
- Can be another option.
- Note: There is a typo in the text regarding the number 9 (this is not part of the text).

Personal Notes from Dean Abelardo L:

Kodak GBX-2 filter: >600 to 620 nm, multi-purpose, filters out yellow and orange, for both blue/green sensitive film, appears dark red.
Color of walls:
- Pastel and light colors: ↑ reflectance of safelight (ivory or light gray color).
- Matte finish not glossy: ↓ reflectance of white light.
- Enamel and epoxy: easy to clean and durable, dries quickly.
- Neon color: Prohibited.
- Bright color: Chosen over dark colors.
Electric wiring: appropriately installed.
Solution pH:
- Measured quarterly (every 3 months).
- Qualitative method of measuring the alkalinity or acidity of a solution.
  - 7 to 14: Base, alkaline chemical.
  - 7: Neutral.
  - 0 to 7: Acid, acidic chemical.
- Developer: pH of 9.6 to 10.6.
- Fixer: pH of 4.2 to 4.9.
Developer specific gravity:
- Measured quarterly (every 3 months).
- Must not be greater than 0.004.
- Measures the amount of water versus chemical.
- Measured using a hydrometer.
Processor control chart monitoring:
- Monitors the quality of processing solutions.

The Radiographic Darkroom

Laboratory where radiography starts and ends.
Controlled environment designed for functionality and convenience.
Designed for handling and storage of x-ray film.
Occupational Safety and Health Agency requires RTs to wear face masks in the darkroom due to fumes.
Darkroom disease: Hypersensitivity to fumes.
Main function: Prevent or protect film from exposure to white light and ionizing radiation during handling and processing.
Latensification: An exposed film is 2-8 times more sensitive to subsequent exposure than unexposed film, as it contains a latent image.

Photographic Properties of Radiographic Images

Density is the degree of blackness on the radiographic film.
- High density means a dark image.
- Low density means a light image.
- Density is affected by:
  - Exposure factors (mAs): Increased mAs will lead to higher density.
  - Kilovoltage peak (kVp): Increased kVp will also increase density.
Contrast is the difference between the darkest and lightest areas of a radiographic image.
- High contrast means a short scale of contrast, resulting in a mainly black and white image with less shades of gray.
- Low contrast means a long scale of contrast, resulting in an image with more shades of gray.
- Factors that influence contrast:
  - kVp: Higher kVp leads to lower contrast.
  - Film latitude: High film latitude means a wide range of exposures that produce diagnostic densities on the image, resulting in lower contrast.
  - Grids: Higher grid ratio increases contrast.
Detail refers to the sharpness or clarity of the structures visible on the image.
- Greater detail means sharper images.
- Factors affecting detail:
  - Source-to-image distance (SID): Increasing SID improves detail.
  - Object-to-image distance (OID): Decreasing OID increases detail.
  - Motion: Any motion during exposure will blur the image and reduce detail.
  - Screen speed: Faster screens result in higher detail, but they also produce higher quantum mottle.

Spectral Matching

The spectral emission of the intensifying screen should be matched with the spectral sensitivity of the film.
- Increased conversion efficiency in intensifying screens due to rare earth phosphors produces higher light output and allows for reduced exposure factors.
- Calcium tungstate phosphors have lower conversion efficiency, resulting in less light output and requiring higher exposure factors.

Film Latitude

Film latitude is the range of exposures that produces acceptable densities on a film.
- Wide film latitude results in lower contrast images (long gray scale) and is associated with low contrast emulsions.
- Narrow latitude results in high contrast images (short gray scale) and is associated with high contrast emulsions.

Geometric Properties of Images

Distortion results from unequal magnification of different parts of the object on the image.
- Factors influencing distortion are:
  - SID: Increased SID reduces distortion.
  - OID: Increasing OID increases distortion.

Darkroom and Automatic Processor Quality Control

Darkroom environment needs to be clean, well-ventilated, organized, and safe for the users and the films.
Safelight test ensures a safelight does not expose the film and create fog.
- For blue-sensitive film, amber filters are used to block red, orange, and yellow wavelengths.
- For monochromatic films, Kodak Wratten 6B (above 550nm) and Kodak Morlite filters are used.
- Safelight fog should not exceed 0.04 OD.
Automatic processor temperature is crucial for proper film development.
- It's essential to maintain it within ±0.3°C or ±0.5°F of the set point.
- Check and adjust the temperature weekly.
Replenishment rate is the rate at which fresh chemicals are added to the processing tanks.
- It should be adjusted weekly to maintain the activity of the developer and fixer solutions.
- The replenishment rate is typically based on the number of films processed per day.
- For example, a processor with typical workloads may require 60-70cc of developer and 100-110cc of fixer for each 14x14 or 14 x17 film developed.
Safelight must be tested daily for fog to ensure proper darkroom hygiene.
- Ensure the fog level is not over 0.15 OD from baseline measurements.
Film sensitometry involves quantitatively measuring the response of film to exposure and development.
- Tools used in sensitometry:
  - Sensitometer: Creates a step wedge with controlled light exposure on film.
  - Penetrometer: Creates a step wedge by exposing the film to different levels of radiation.
  - Densitometer: Measures the optical density of the film at different exposure levels by measuring the amount of light transmitted through the film.

Additional Notes

The spectral response of a film emulsion refers to the wavelengths of light it is sensitive to.
Film speed is directly related to the sensitivity of the film emulsion.
Quantum mottle is a grainy appearance on the image that is due to statistical fluctuations in the number of photons detected by the film.
Lag/afterglow is the persistence of light emission from the phosphors after the x-ray beam is turned off.
Phosphorescence is associated with fluoroscopic screens.

Spinning Top Test

Used to evaluate single-phase, full-wave rectified x-ray generators.
Consists of two metal parts:
- Top part: A 3-inch round disk with a small hole near the edge.
- Circular pedestal: The top part rests and rotates freely on it.
Steps for performing the test:
- Place the spinning top on the cassette with film.
- Spin the top using the fingers to rotate the top.
- Exposures are made while the top is spinning.
- Adjust kilovoltage, milliamperes, exposure time, and table-top vs. Potter-Bucky diaphragm.

Rotor and Exposure Switch

Rotor switch:
- Initiates rotation of the anode in preparation for exposure.
- Maximum anode rotation is achieved in approximately 1 second.
- Activates full current flow through the cathode, heating it and causing it to glow red.
Exposure switch:
- Activated when the anode reaches maximum RPM.
- Results in x-ray production.
- Both switches are activated only when needed for extended x-ray tube life.

X-ray Production

Before exposure:
- Patient is positioned correctly.
- Equipment is set up properly.
- Factors are selected on the control panel.
Sequence of events during exposure:
- Rotor switch activated: Anode starts rotating.
- Cathode filament heats up: Thermionic emission occurs, releasing electrons.
- Space charge forms: Electrons accumulate around the filament.
- Exposure switch activated: Current flows from cathode to anode target.
- Electrons accelerated: Thousands of volts (kilovolts) propel electrons towards the anode.
- Electrons strike anode target: Interactions produce heat (~99%) and x-rays (~1%).
- X-rays emitted: They travel in all directions, absorbed by the lead tube housing.
- Useful rays: The x-rays that pass through the tube and become the exit beam.

Characteristics of X-ray Photons

Cannot be focused: Unlike visible light, x-rays cannot be focused by lenses.
Travel in straight lines: X-rays diverge from their origin.
Cannot be deflected: Mirrors and other devices cannot deflect x-rays.
Luminescence: Visible light is emitted when x-rays interact with certain substances.
Film sensitivity: X-rays cause changes in the film's sensitive emulsion.
Secondary and scatter radiation: Produced when x-rays interact with matter.

Imaging System: X-ray Film

Radiographic film: Records the image based on transmitted x-rays and light produced by intensifying screens.
Supercoat: Protective coating above the emulsion layer preventing damage during use.
Basic parts: Base layer and emulsion layer.
Other parts: Adhesive layer and overcoat.
Thickness: 150 to 300 µm.
Sizes: 35 × 43 cm (14 × 17 in) or 20 × 25 cm (8 × 10 in).

Film Composition

Base layer: Provides support for the emulsion layer, made of polyester, plastic, or high-grade cardboard.
Emulsion layer: Contains silver halide crystals (usually silver bromide) that are sensitive to light and x-rays.
Adhesive layer: Holds the emulsion layer to the base.
Overcoat: Protects the emulsion from scratches and handling.
Silver halide crystals: Can be either tabular or globular, with different sizes and shapes influencing the film speed.

Film Storage

Temperature: Store film at 0°C (32°F) to stop aging.
Warm up: Warm film to room temperature (35°C or 85°F) before using.
Aging: Higher temperatures accelerate the aging process.
Packaging: Store in original packaging to note expiration date.
FIFO/LIFO: Implement "first in, first out" or "last in, last out" storage system.
Expired films: Discard expired films.
Pressure: Prevent pressure on films to avoid artifacts.
Radiation: Store away from radiation areas or use protective barriers.
Storage location: Store films vertically, upright, or at the edge.
Separation: Separate film sheets with photo-inert paper leaves to prevent sticking and pressure artifacts.
Light/Radiation protection: Store in photo-inert polyethylene bags or metal foil to prevent light and moisture exposure.
Chemical storage: Keep film storage separate from chemicals.
Radiation limit: Maintain a 12 µR radiation limit in film storage areas.

Imaging System: Intensifying Screen

Intensifying screen: Acts as a transducer, converting x-ray energy into visible light which exposes radiographic film.
Fluoresce: Emits light only when exposed to x-rays, not phosphorescent.
Composition: Polyester base with phosphors (calcium tungstate or rare earth materials) that convert x-rays into visible light.
Contact: Perfect film-screen contact ensures accurate image reproduction.
Poor contact: Results in localized loss of detail and blurring.
Advantages: Reduces radiation dose, technical factors, and extends tube life.
Disadvantages: Increases quantum mottle and can affect image quality.

Layers of the Intensifying Screen

Protective coating: Provides a physical barrier protecting the delicate phosphor layer.
Phosphor layer: Contains luminescent crystals that emit light when struck by x-rays.
Reflective layer: Increases light yield by reflecting light back towards the film.
Base layer: Provides a strong base for all other layers.

Comparison of Screen Speed

Screen speed: The screen's ability to produce visible light.
Higher screen speed: Produces more light, resulting in higher density and lower image quality.
Contributing factors: Type of phosphor, thickness of the phosphor layer, crystal size, reflective layer quality, absorbing layer and dye.

Phosphor Materials

Calcium tungstate: Introduced by Thomas A. Edison.
- Globular grains
- Calcium tungstate phosphor (broad band emission)
- Insensitive to red, orange, and yellow light.
Rare earth:
- Lanthanum oxybromide
- Gadolinium oxysulfide
- Yttrium tantalite
Orthochromatic film:
- Green sensitive, sensitive to wavelength radiation reaching the film to continue in the AEC.
- Has no lead foil.

Screen Factors and their Effects on Image Quality

Screen Factor	Speed	Detail	Dose	Mottle
↑ Phosphor layer thickness	↑	↓	↓	↑
↑ Crystal size	↑	↓	↓	↑
↑ Light emission	↑	↓	↓	↑
↓ Screen speed	↓	↑	↑	↓
↑ Density	↓	↑	↑	↓

Exposure Factors

Adequate exposure has been achieved when a sufficient amount of radiation has penetrated the anatomical part of interest, resulting in appropriate radiographic density and contrast.
Motion elimination is crucial during the exposure to avoid image blur.
Proper anatomical positioning ensures the anatomical part is positioned correctly in relation to the x-ray beam.
Appropriate accessory selection involves using the correct grids, filters, and other accessories to optimize image quality.
Field size selection plays a significant role in reducing scatter radiation and improving image detail.

Technical Competencies of the Radiographer

Radiographers possess a strong understanding of x-ray equipment operation and proper technique selection.
Control panel operation includes adjusting exposure parameters such as kVp, mAs, and time.
Accessory selection is vital for optimizing image quality, such as choosing grid ratios and filters based on the examination.
Technique selection involves determining the correct kVp, mAs, and other factors for specific anatomical regions.
Radiographic evaluation requires the ability to interpret images and identify potential technical errors.
Measurement skills are important for positioning patients and setting exposure parameters correctly.
Proper terminology is essential for communicating effectively with other professionals and ensuring accurate documentation.

X-ray Production

Cathode is a negatively charged electrode that emits electrons.
Anode is the positively charged electrode where electrons strike, producing x-rays.
Rotating anode is the most common type of anode, which helps dissipate heat generated during x-ray production.
Anode target area is preheated before use to optimize x-ray production.
The focal spot is the small area on the anode target where electrons collide, generating x-rays.

X-ray Production Process

The exposure switch initiates the flow of current from the cathode to the anode target.
High voltage accelerates electrons to high speeds, achieving thousands of volts (kilovolts).
Electron bombardment on the anode target results in the production of heat (approximately 99%) and x-rays (approximately 1%).
X-ray emission occurs in all directions, but only useful x-rays passing through the tube housing are used for imaging.

Film Composition

Film base provides physical stability and rigidity to the film.
Emulsion is the active layer of the film, containing silver halide crystals sensitive to radiation.
Silver halide crystals are the key to image formation and serve as energy detectors.
Gelatin serves as a suspension medium for the silver halide crystals, allowing chemicals to penetrate during processing.
Protective layer protects the emulsion from damage during handling.

Film Properties

Film speed is measured by the number of silver halide crystals and their size.
Higher speed films require less radiation to produce an image, but often result in lower image detail.
Contrast is influenced by the size and uniformity of silver halide crystals.
Wide latitude films have a longer gray scale and are typically used for lower contrast examinations, allowing for a larger margin of error in technique selection.

Intensifying Screens

Intensifying screens convert x-rays to visible light to enhance the image on radiographic film.
Phosphor layer is the active layer of the screen, containing phosphor crystals.
Light emitted by phosphor exposes the film during x-ray exposure.

Phosphor Properties

Fluorescence is the emission of light only while exposed to x-ray radiation.
Phosphorescence is the continued emission of light after x-ray exposure has ceased, causing "afterglow" or "screen lag."
Rare-earth phosphors have higher conversion efficiency than calcium tungstate screens, leading to reduced exposure requirements and improved detail.

Selecting the Right Imaging System

Spectral sensitivity of the film refers to the specific color of light to which it is most responsive.
Spectral emission describes the color of light emitted by a particular intensifying screen.
Spectral matching is the process of ensuring that the film's sensitivity matches the screen's emission, optimizing image quality.

Spinning Top Test

Evaluates 1-phase and 3-phase x-ray generators.
Consists of two metal parts: a top part with a hole and a circular pedestal.
The top part rotates freely on the pedestal.
Steps:
- Place the top on the cassette with film.
- Spin the top and make exposures while it's spinning.
- Use a pulse-counter device to evaluate the pulses.
Located in the primary x-ray beam to count and evaluate pulses.

Rotor and Exposure Switch

Rotor Switch:
- Initiates anode rotation before exposure.
- Allows full current to flow to the cathode, causing it to heat up and turn red.
Exposure Switch:
- Activated after the anode reaches maximum RPM.
- Initiates x-ray production.
Both switches activate only when necessary to prolong x-ray tube life.

Milliampere Selector

Counts electrical current flowing through the cathode filament.
Range: 25 to 2000 mA.
Selection of mA determines focal spot size:
- Low current for small focal spot.
- High current for large focal spot.

Exposure Latitude

The range of exposure factors that can produce an acceptable image density.
Narrow exposure latitude: few factors produce acceptable density (less forgiving).
Wide exposure latitude: many factors produce acceptable density (more forgiving).

Film Contrast

The inherent ability of the film to record minute density differences.
High contrast emulsions: provide good image quality.
Low contrast emulsions: provide poor image quality.

Characteristics of X-Ray Film

Film Speed:
- The degree to which the emulsion is sensitive to x-rays or light.
- Higher speed means higher sensitivity, requiring less exposure for a specific density.
- Factors affecting film speed:
  - Size and shape of silver halide crystals.
  - Thickness of the emulsion layer.
Storage:
- Optimal temperature: 0°C to stop aging.
- Higher temperature accelerates aging.
- Store in original packaging to note expiration date.
- Follow FIFO (First In First Out) or LIFO (Last In First Out) system.
- Discard expired films.
Handling:
- Store vertically to prevent pressure artifacts.
- Separate sheets with photo-inert paper.
- Protect from radiation by using a protective bag or foil.
- Store away from radiation areas or use protective barriers.

X-Ray Film Layers

Base: Polyester (200 μm) provides structural support.
Adhesive Layer: (3-5 μm) attaches the emulsion layer to the base.
Emulsion: (150-300 μm) contains silver halide crystals (silver bromide and silver iodide) that capture x-ray energy.
Supercoat: (10-20 μm) protects the emulsion layer from damage.

Brief History of X-Ray Film

1895: Photographic glass plates were used.
1914: Cellulose nitrate film base (highly flammable) was introduced.
1918: Duplitized films were developed, reducing exposure time by half.
1933: Tinted film base was introduced.
1936: Direct exposure film became available.
1940: Films suitable for both direct and indirect exposure were introduced.
1958: Fast light-sensitive films were developed.
1960s: Polyester film base and films for rapid processing were introduced.

Types of X-Ray Film

Orthochromatic Film:
- Sensitive to green light.
- Allows wavelength radiation reaching the film to continue to the AEC.
Intensifying Screens:
- Transducers that convert x-ray energy into visible light for exposing radiographic film.
- Intensifying screens fluoresce but not phosphoresce.
- Made of polyester base with a phosphor layer, which produces visible light when struck by x-rays.
- Normally mounted inside the cassette in pairs for use with double-emulsion film
- Advantages:
  - Reduced radiation dose.
  - Reduced technical factors.
  - Increased tube life.
- Disadvantages:
  - Increased quantum mottle.
  - Reduced image quality.

Layers of Intensifying Screen

Protective Layer: Protects the phosphor screen from damage.
Phosphor Layer: Contains phosphors that convert x-ray energy into light.
Reflective Layer: Reflects light towards the film, increasing efficiency.
Base: Provides structural support.

Processing System

Manual Processing System:
- 70°F Processing Temperatures.
- Cascade Compartment Type: Separate tanks for developer, fixer, and washes.
Automatic Processing System:
- Control of Temperature: Maintains adequate density and contrast.
- Agitation of Chemical Solutions: Provides thorough mixing.
- Replenishment: Maintains volume and strength of solutions.
- Minimum Spilling of Chemicals: Reduces contamination.
- Transportation of Film: Controls time in developer and fixer.
- Time-Temperature Relationship: Ensures consistency in processing.
- Compact Size: Requires minimal space.

AEC (Automatic Exposure Control)

AEC uses predetermined kVp while mAs is controlled by the machine.
Varying kVp does not affect density but alters contrast.
Changing density controls adjusts the density (each step equals 25% change).

X-Ray Tubes

Back-up timer: Prevents continuous exposure if AEC fails.
Exposure Technique: Low mA (50-100 mA), large focal spot, 65-70 kVp, 2-3 second exposure time.

Darkroom Maintenance and Features

Cleanliness: Avoid abrasions, scratches, and dirt on film and screens.
Light-Tight Entrance: Single door, passbox, or interlocking system.
Illumination: White light for maintenance, safelight for handling film, 3-4 feet distance and specific wattage.
Safelight: Filters out specific colors, 0.04 OD acceptable fog.

Automatic Processors

Standardize processing: Consistent and efficient film processing.
Processing Cycle: Dry-to-drop time, usually 45 seconds to 3.5 minutes.
Processing Capacity: Number of films processed per hour.
Standard size: 24 inches/corner.
90 Second Processor: 90-95 degrees Fahrenheit, 15-20 second clear time.

Automatic Processor Components

Transport System: Advances film through the processor, agitates chemistry, and controls film speed.
Replenishment System: Adds fresh developer and fixer for each film.
Recirculation System: Agitates and filters developer, stabilizes temperature, and prevents chemical stratification.
Dryer System: Dries film at 120 degrees Fahrenheit after the wash tank.

Other Key Information

Image Quality with AEC: Consistent image quality between examinations.
Darkroom Disease: Hypersensitivity to fumes.
Latent Image: An exposed film is more sensitive to subsequent exposure.
X-ray Uses: Assisting physicians in diagnosing diseases and disorders.
Occupational Safety and Health Agency: Requires face masks in darkrooms due to carcinogenic fumes.

Processor Roller Assembly

Roller Types: Entrance, transport, planetary, turnaround, solar, master, crossover, squeegee, guide plates
Roller Assembly Power: Motor drive, electric power, on/off switch and standby power
Roller Assembly Connections: Belt and pulley, chains and sprockets, gears

Replenishment Systems

Types: Volume and flood replenishment systems
Volume Replenishment: Microswitch controls replenishment rate based on film size and quantity
Volume Replenishment Rates: Developer: 60-70 cc/film, or 4-5 mL/in, Fixer: 100-110 cc/film, or 6-8 mL/in
Flood Replenishment: Timed or standby system, replenishes processing chemicals at predetermined intervals or when processor is not in use
Flood Replenishment Inventor: Donald Titus of Kodak

Replenishment Rate Control

Microswitch: Located at entrance of processor, senses film size and triggers replenishment
Replenishment Criteria: Film size determines replenishment trigger, 8x10 needs two films together to trigger replenishment
Replenishment Rate: Based on film size, chemical volume per film, and the amount of chemicals needed for each inch of film travel

Pumps

Pump Types: Diaphragm, bellows, magnetic-drive centrifugal, percentage time, piston
Recommended Pump: Bellows type pump
Pump Applications: Kodak processor uses magnetic-drive centrifugal pump, Sonics/Litton use percentage time pump

Exposure and Film

Spectral Matching: Color light from phosphors must match film emulsion sensitivity
Phosphor Types: Rare-earth (high conversion efficiency), Calcium Tungstate (low conversion efficiency)
Conversion Efficiency and Speed: Increased conversion efficiency and speed of screens lead to higher fluorescent light output
Factors Influencing IS Speed: Type and size of phosphor, thickness of active/phosphor layer, degree of reflectance
Fast Screens: Combine with low mAs and high kV factors to increase quantum mottle
Lag/Afterglow: Phosphor fluorescence after x-ray source stops
Phosphorescence: Associated with fluoroscopic screens
Screen-Film Contact: Essential for recorded detail, measured with wire mesh test

Variables and Properties

Variables: mAs, kVp, Source-Image Distance (SID), Object-Image Distance (OID), Grid ratio, film-screen speed, collimation
Photographic Properties: Density, Contrast
Geometric Properties: Detail, Distortion
Variable Effects: High mAs increases density, Low mAs decreases density, High kVp increases contrast, Low kVp decreases contrast, Short SID increases detail and distortion, Long SID decreases detail and distortion, Long OID decreases detail and contrast, Short OID increases detail and contrast, High grid ratio decreases contrast, Low grid ratio increases contrast, Fast films/screens increase contrast, Slow films/screens decrease contrast, Narrow collimation increases contrast, Wide collimation decreases contrast

Radiographic Imaging Techniques

Radiography is the use of ionizing radiation to produce a recorded image.
Radiology is the medical specialty that encompasses the practice of radiography.
Radiologists are board certified physicians who practice radiology.
Radiologic Technologists are skilled professionals who use x-rays and radiation to produce high-quality images of the human body.
Radiograph is the image produced using x-radiation.

X-ray Production

X-ray production requires a cathode and an anode.
Cathode is comprised of a filament (source of electrons) and a focusing cup.
Filament is made of tungsten wire that can withstand extreme heat and provides a good source of electrons through thermionic emission.
Focusing cup encases the filament and focuses the space charge on a target area on the anode.
Anode contains a target where the electrons from the filament are directed.
Thermionic emission occurs when negatively charged electrons break away from the hot filament, forming a space charge.
Space charge effect occurs when further thermionic emission is halted by the space charge itself.
Milliampere second meter provides information about the total current flowing through the x-ray tube during exposure.
Kilovoltage selection regulates the voltage across the x-ray tube during exposure, directly impacting the energy of the x-rays produced.
Kilovoltage meter "prereading" displays the voltage expected to pass across the x-ray tube during exposure.

Intensifying Screens

Intensifying screens are placed inside the cassette, next to the film, and are composed of multiple layers.
Layers of an intensifying screen:
- Protective coating: protects the phosphor layer, provides a surface for cleaning, and prevents static build-up.
- Phosphor layer: the layer that absorbs x-rays and emits light, made of different materials.
- Reflective layer: maximizes light production by reflecting light from emitted photons.
- Base layer: supports the other layers.
Phosphor materials: calcium tungstate, barium lead sulfate or barium fluorochloride, zinc sulfide.
Screen speed: the ability of the screen to produce light and density, directly related to the type of phosphor, thickness of the phosphor layer, size of crystals, reflective layer, and absorbing layer.
Intensification factor: demonstrates the intensifying action of the screen.
Higher screen speed results in higher light emission, higher density, lower detail, and lower patient dose.
Lower screen speed results in lower light emission, lower density, higher detail, and higher patient dose.

Film Processing

Developing converts silver bromide crystals in the film to black metallic silver, making the image visible.
Fixing removes unexposed silver bromide crystals, stops development, and hardens the emulsion.
Washing removes residual chemicals from the film.
Drying removes water from the film via a dryer system.
Manual processing system involves a developer tank, fixer tank, and two wash tanks.
Automatic processing system is a more efficient and faster way to process film.
Factors that impact processing:
- Temperature control
- Agitation of chemical solutions
- Replenishment
- Minimum spilling of chemicals
- Transportation of film

Marva III’s Research and Lectures

Marva III’s Research and Lectures were presented in 1958 and 1960s
Marva III’s research focused on the development of faster light sensitive film and polyester based film
Marva III’s research also focused on film for rapid processing

Types of X-ray Film

Faster light sensitive films are preferred because they require less radiation exposure
Films should be stored at 0°C to prevent the aging process
Films should be warmed up to room temperature before using
Expired films should be discarded
Films should be stored vertically to prevent pressure artifacts
Films should be stored in a photo-inert polyethylene bag or metal foil to protect them from light, radiation and moisture
Films should be stored away from radiation areas or behind protective barriers
Films should be exposed to a maximum of 12 µR of radiation
Chemicals should be stored away from film
X-ray films respond well to x-rays
X-ray films can be manufactured in different speeds: slow, medium or par, and high speed
X-ray films convert 5% of x-ray energy to light
X-ray films are used with blue sensitive film and have globular grains
X-ray films have broad band emissions of blue, indigo, violet
Barium lead sulfate or barium fluorochloride is used to produce high speed screens
Zinc sulfide is used in fluoroscopic screens and responds well to low intensity radiation

Imaging System -Intensifying Screen

Intensifying screens are made of polyester base with an active layer containing phosphors
Intensifying screens are normally mounted inside the cassette in pairs for use with double-emulsion film
The intensifying screen must have perfect contact with the film
Poor contact can lead to loss of recorded detail
Poor contact can lead to localized blurring on the image
Poor film-screen contact can be tested using a wire-mesh test
Intensifying screens reduce radiation exposure by 90%
The intensifying screen has several advantages: reduced radiation dose, lower technical factors, and increased tube life
The intensifying screen also has several disadvantages: increased quantum mottle and reduced image quality
The intensifying screen has 4 layers: reflective, absorbing, dye in phosphor, and protective
Screen speed is the capability of the screen to produce light
Film speed is the capability of the film to absorb light

The Radiographic Darkroom

The darkroom is a laboratory where radiography begins and ends
The darkroom has a controlled environment designed to be functional and convenient
The darkroom handles and stores x-ray film
Occupational Safety and Health Agency requires radiologic technologists to wear a face mask in the darkroom because fumes are carcinogenic
The darkroom prevents or protects the film from exposure to white light and ionizing radiation during handling and processing
Latent image is formed when an exposed film is 2 to 8 times more sensitive to subsequent exposure than it was before exposure

Darkroom Requirements

Darkrooms are designed for safelight
Darkrooms should have a safelight filter
The darkroom should have a single, light-tight entrance
The darkroom should be clean and uncluttered
The walls should be painted with pastel or light colors; ivory or light gray
The walls should have a matte finish not glossy
The walls should be painted with enamel & epoxy
The electrical wiring should be installed appropriately
Quarterly checks should be made to ensure appropriate pH of the developer, fixer, and processing solutions.
Specific gravitational checks should be made quarterly on the developer solution
Processor control chart monitoring should be used to ensure the quality of the processing
The pH of the developer should be between 9.6 and 10.6
The pH of the fixer should be between 4.2 and 4.9
The specific gravity of the developer should be no greater than 0.004
Specific gravity is the measure of water vs. chemical concentration.

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This quiz covers the fundamental components and functions of X-ray tubes and radiographic films. Learn how current flows in the tube, the production of X-rays, and the properties of X-ray film. Test your knowledge of these essential concepts in radiography.

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Questions and Answers

What primarily occurs when electrons strike the anode target?

Which part is NOT a basic component of film composition?

What is the approximate thickness of the film used in this process?

What percentage of energy is converted into x-rays during exposure?

In which direction do x-rays primarily travel after production?

What is a characteristic of indirect safelight?

What is the maximum allowable optical density (OD) increase from baseline measurements for quality control?

Which aspect is NOT part of film sensitometry?

In quality control of darkroom processing, what is a requirement for the darkroom environment?

When should direct safelight be used during the processing workflow?

What is the main purpose of the film base in radiography?

What is focal track pitting, and how can it be prevented?

How does dimensional stability of the x-ray film affect imaging?

What should be done before using an x-ray tube to ensure proper functioning?

What is a characteristic of the x-ray film base?

What action must a radiographer take to prolong the life of the x-ray tube?

What is the role of the radiographer in relation to the expensive x-ray equipment?

Which of the following statements is NOT true about the characteristics of the x-ray film?

What type of film is insensitive to red, orange, and yellow light?

What happens to the aging process of film as temperature increases?

What should be used to prevent films from sticking together?

Why is film storage important to note the expiration date?

How should films be stored to prevent pressure artifacts?

What is the primary function of intensifying screens in radiographic film?

What is the relationship between quantum mottle and image quality?

What should be done to film before using it again after storage?

Which of the following is a disadvantage of using intensifying screens?

What limit should film storage maintain from radiation areas?

Which layer of the intensifying screen is responsible for producing visible light?

What type of film is recommended for rapid processing?

What is the recommended storage temperature range for film?

Which system helps ensure that the oldest films are used first?

What does the term 'exposure latitude' refer to in x-ray film?

Which layer in x-ray film provides protection to the sensitive emulsion layer?

Which material is commonly used as the base layer for x-ray films?

How does film speed relate to exposure in x-ray imaging?

What impact do high contrast emulsions have on radiographic images?

What was a significant innovation in x-ray film technology in 1918?

What thickness range does the emulsion layer of x-ray film typically have?

Which component of x-ray film is responsible for determining its sensitivity to exposure?

What is a characteristic of films with narrow exposure latitude?

What tends to happen as the speed point of x-ray film increases?

What is the primary purpose of the pulse-counter device in an x-ray generator?

How does selecting a milliampere (mA) affect the focal spot size in x-ray imaging?

Where is the ionization chamber located in relation to the cassette holder in an x-ray unit?

What triggers the termination of exposure in the pulse-counter device?

What range of milliampere (mA) is typically available for selection in x-ray generators?

What is the main purpose of the exposure timer in an x-ray generator unit?

Which component of an x-ray system allows radiographers to modify the energy of the produced x-rays?

How is the total amount of tube current indicated during exposure?

What distinguishes electronic timers from other types of timers in x-ray systems?

What does the milliampere second (mAs) represent in x-ray production?

Which aspect of the kilovoltage selector is true?

What is the shortest setting time for mechanical timers in an x-ray generator?

What does the kilovoltage meter indicate during the x-ray exposure?

How does selecting the kV major control settings affect the x-ray production?

What initiates the process of x-ray production after the patient is positioned and equipment is ready?

Which characteristic of x-ray photons allows them to interact with matter to produce secondary radiation?

Which factor is critical for making an x-ray exposure besides patient positioning?

What is created when the cathode filament reaches thermionic emission?

What role do intensifying screens play in the imaging system of x-ray film?

Which component of the x-ray film is responsible for causing visible changes during processing?

What occurs during the activation of the rotor switch in x-ray production?

Which statement about characteristics of x-ray photons is incorrect?

What is the primary function of an automatic processor in radiographic film processing?

What temperature range is typically used during the processing cycle of an automatic processor?

What is the clear time when processing films in an automatic processor?

What problem can occur when film is prematurely fed into the processor?

What system within the automatic processor helps to maintain a stable solution temperature?

In what year was the first automatic processor, Pako, introduced?

What is the function of the entrance roller in an automatic processor?

How long does a double capacity processor typically take to process a film?

What is the primary purpose of the replenishment system in an automatic processor?

What is the dry-to-drop time in the context of film processing?

What aspect of the transport system is critical to ensuring film quality during processing?

What is a common maximum processing capacity for an automatic processor?