Written vs Spoken Discourse

• Written texts share the same nature as spoken language

Discourse Defined

• Discourse refers to written or spoken communication that is often formal and organized
• It includes not just words, but structure and context
• Discourses occur in conversations, lectures, debates, articles and on social media
• Discourse shapes understanding of the world, ideas, and knowledge

Course Focus

• The course will focus on written texts/discourses
• Familiarizing with different text forms/written discourses is important, especially in academia

Written Text Examples

• Brown(1994) provided a list of written texts
• Fiction examples are novels, short stories, dramas and poetry
• Non-fiction examples are essays, articles, reports, editorials and references like dictionaries/encyclopedias
• Other examples are letters (personal/business), greeting cards, diaries, journals, memoranda and messages
• Further examples include announcements, newspaper articles ("Journalese")
• Academic writing, including short answer test responses, reports, essays, papers, books, and article publications also fall under the text
• Forms, applications, questionnaires, directions, labels, signs, recipes, bills, maps, manuals, menus and schedules
• Finally advertisements, invitations, directories, and comic strips/cartoons are also included

Connected Discourse

• Connected discourse is ideas interrelated to form a coherent message
• Interrelatedness/interconnectedness, like in a short story, is achieved via grammar and logical flow

Basic Paragraph Structure

• A paragraph has a topic sentence, supporting sentences, it also has a concluding sentence
• Topic sentences introduce the main idea, staying clear and concise to set the tone
• "Reading books can greatly enhance one's knowledge and vocabulary" exemplifies an opening sentence
• Supporting sentences provide details, examples, or explanations and also includes facts, quotes, or personal experiences
• "For instance, reading a variety of genres exposes readers to different writing styles and new vocabulary words" exemplifies this
• "Additionally, books can provide in-depth information on specific subjects, allowing readers to gain a deeper understanding," highlights the added information
• Concluding sentences summarize the main idea, provide closure and should give a sense of completion
• An example is "In conclusion, the habit of reading books is a valuable practice that enriches one's knowledge and language skills."

Discourse Markers

• Discourse markers organize and manage conversation or writing flow
• They signal relationships between ideas, indicate transitions, show agreement/disagreement

Adding Information

• "And" connects similar ideas, such as "She likes to read, and she enjoys writing"
• "Also" adds another point, like "He's a good speaker. Also, he writes well"
• "Moreover/Furthermore" adds a more important point like "The policy is effective. Moreover, it is cost-efficient"

Sequencing Markers

• "First/Firstly" indicates the beginning of a sequence, like "First, we need to gather the materials"
• "Next/Then" indicates the next step, like "Next, mix the ingredients together"
• "Finally" indicates the last step, like "Finally, bake the cake for 30 minutes"

Contrasting Markers

• "But" introduces a contrast, like "She is smart, but she can be lazy"
• "However" introduces a stronger contrast as in "The weather was bad. However, we still went hiking"
• "On the other hand" presents an alternative view, such as "He loves the city. On the other hand, he enjoys the countryside too"

Cause and Effect Markers

• "Because" indicates a reason, like "She stayed home because she was sick"
• "Therefore" indicates a result, as in "It rained heavily. Therefore, the event was canceled"
• "As a result" indicates a consequence, for example, "The company expanded. As a result, they hired more staff"

Summarizing Markers

• "In summary" summarizes the main points, for example, "In summary, the project was a success"
• "To conclude" indicates a final statement, as in "To conclude, we should implement the new policy"
• "Overall" provides a general summary, like "Overall, the performance was excellent"

Giving Examples

• "For example" introduces an example, like "There are many fruits in the basket. For example, apples and bananas"
• "Such as" introduces specific examples, such as "She enjoys outdoor activities, such as hiking and biking"
• "For instance" provides a specific instance like "He is good at sports. For instance, he plays basketball and soccer"
• Discourse markers act as guides for readers/listeners

Example Paragraph with Discourse Markers

• "The new policy has been well-received by the staff"
• "Moreover, it has led to increased productivity"
• "However, there are still some challenges to address"
• "For instance, not all employees are familiar with the new procedures"
• "Therefore, additional training sessions are necessary"
• "In summary, while the policy has had a positive impact, further improvements are needed"