World War I: Western and Eastern Fronts

Western Front

• Christmas 1914: Fighting ceased briefly, soldiers exchanged gifts, and played football in no man's land.
• Trench warfare resulted in immense casualties: over 400,000 dead and 1 million wounded.
• 1915: Poison gas employed, marking a horrifying new phase of warfare; chlorine gas first used at Ypres.

Eastern Front

• German-Austrian forces successfully halted Russian advances, despite Russia having a large army.
• Russian army's lack of modern weaponry and equipment compared to the Germans was a significant disadvantage.
• General von Hindenburg led German victories at Tannenberg and Masurian Lakes.
• Eastern Front characterized by long, entrenched battles, similar to the Western Front.

Naval Warfare

• German U-boats (submarines) attacked enemy ships.
• U-boats blockaded Britain to cut off supplies to the Allies.
• May 1915: Sinking of the Lusitania, a British passenger ship, killing many civilians, including Americans, causing outrage and drawing the US closer to the Allies.

Italy's Role in the War

• Initially neutral, despite being part of the Triple Alliance (with Germany and Austria-Hungary).
• Italy argued the alliance was defensive, and Austria-Hungary acted offensively.
• Internal divisions characterized by neutralist and interventionist factions.
  • Neutralists (Catholics, socialists, Giolitti).
  • Interventionists (nationalists, revolutionary socialists, futurists, D’Annunzio).
• Interventionists aimed at reclaiming territories from Austria-Hungary.
• Italy eventually joined the Allies.

Italy Mobilizes

• 1915: Signed Treaty of London, committing to the Allied side for lands like Trentino, Istria, and Dalmatian Coast.
• Wartime mobilization escalated: 125,000 workers in 1915, increasing to 976,000 by 1918 (including 900,000 women).
• War effort prioritized production, suppressing strikes and protests, banning unions.

Trench Warfare in Italy

• Italian Front mirrored the Western Front's trench warfare horrors.
• Harsh conditions: lack of food, water, and cold alpine winters.
• Diseases (trench foot and typhus) spread rapidly among soldiers, especially Alpini mountain troops.

Key Battles on the Italian Front

• Battle of Isonzo: 11 offensives yielded minimal gains, significant casualties.
• Battle of Carso: Major Italian losses, over half a million soldiers.
• Battle of Caporetto (1917): Austro-German victory, 300,000 Italian prisoners, significant retreat.

The Turning Point of 1917 and the End of the War

• 1917
  • Russia's Withdrawal: Bolshevik Revolution and the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.
  • United States Entry: German unrestricted submarine warfare and Lusitania sinking prompted US involvement.
• 1918
  • Austria-Hungary's Collapse: Internal revolts and Italian counteroffensive (Battle of Vittorio Veneto) leading to surrender.
  • Germany's Defeat: Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated, Armistice signed November 11, marking the end of the war.
  • Ottoman Empire's Collapse: Loss of all territories outside Turkey.

Aftermath

• Armenian Genocide: Ottoman Turks' slaughter of 1.5 million Armenians.
• Political Changes: Austro-Hungarian Empire dissolved into new nations (Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia); Germany transitioned to a republic.
• League of Nations formed to avoid future wars (failed).

The Balance Wavers

• Imperialism and Patriotism
• Nationalism: Extreme attachment to one's nation, often hostile to others.
• Patriotism: Balanced love of homeland, without hostility towards others.
• Colonialism: Invasion and control of foreign lands, often justified by racial superiority ("White Man's Burden").
• Colonial Investments: Germany and France exploiting resources in Africa.
• Bismarck and Diplomacy: Secured Germany's position through alliances (Triple Alliance).
• Colonial Expansion under Kaiser Wilhelm II: Aggressive pursuit of colonies and increased nationalism.
• Irredentism: Movement for reclaiming lost territories (e.g., Italy).
• Balkan Fragmentation: Tensions among diverse ethnic groups in the Balkans and their independence movements.
• Pan-Slavism: Russian-backed Slavic unity increased tensions.

Russia's Challenges

• Territorial expansion near borders rather than overseas colonies.
• Corruption, bureaucracy, illiteracy, extreme poverty in the Russian Empire.
• Oppressive feudal system controlled by the Tsarist autocracy.

Leadership Failures

• Alexander III's extreme nationalism, isolating Russia from Western alliances.
• Nicholas II's regime: Brutality and inability to address social unrest leading to revolution.
• Prelude to Revolution: Unrest resulting from social and economic problems.