World War I Origins & Armed Peace

1917: War in October, World War I and its consequences, and the Russian Revolution

World War I (I): Origin of the Conflict

• Germany became key to international relations under Bismarck, establishing alliances with Austria and Russia, aiming to isolate France after losing Alsace-Lorraine in 1870, keep balance in the Balkans due to conflict between Russia and Austria.
• Kaiser Wilhelm II's aggressive policies led to Bismarck's dismissal in 1890.
• The period known as the Armed Peace (1890-1914) saw the formation of two opposing blocks in Europe: the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria, and Italy, and the Triple Entente (or Entente Cordiale) of France, Russia, and the United Kingdom.
• Mutual fear prompted an intense military build-up, as arms production became a deterrent strategy and benefited large metallurgical companies, thus promoting both military production and colonial expansion.

Armed clashes between powers.

• Colonial issues were a recurring source of conflict, as emerging powers like the U.S. and Germany felt deprived of raw materials and markets by traditional powers like the UK and France.
• German attempts to prevent France from establishing a protectorate in Morocco led to visible clashes, but France succeeded with British support.
• The Eastern Question was another source of conflict, with a declining Ottoman Empire leading Russia and Austria to seek more influence.
• Russia supported Slavic states, while Austria sought to expand into the Adriatic. Between 1908 and 1913, three major crises occurred in the area.

The crisis of summer 1914.

• On June 28, 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, was assassinated during a visit to Sarajevo, Bosnia leading to Austria presenting Serbia with an ultimatum on July 23, backed by German support.
• Serbia, supported by Russia, rejected the ultimatum, leading Austria to declare war on Serbia on July 28.
• Russia began mobilizing against Austria and Germany.
• Germany then declared war on Russia and France, planning to swiftly attack France through Belgium, violating international treaties.
• This led the UK to intervene in the conflict and Italy did not support Austria or Germany, thus breaking the Triple Alliance.

World War I (II): Development

• The conflict became global with major powers and their empires engaged, alongside new entrants.
• The Central Powers (Germany and Austria-Hungary) were supported by Turkey and Bulgaria, while the Triple Entente gained support from Italy, Greece, and later, the U.S., with China and Japan participating less actively.
• The war lasted from 1914 to 1918, and can be divided into four phases.

War of Movement (1914)

• The German Schlieffen Plan aimed to quickly invade France, then attack Russia, but German forces were stopped at the Battle of the Marne, near Paris.
• Russia attacked Germany, suffering defeats at Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes, but forced Germany to divert troops eastward, preventing the fall of Paris.

War of Positions (1914-1917)

• The failed German offensive led to the consolidation of fronts, with defensive tactics like trenches and machine guns becoming dominant
• German attempts to break the front at the Battle of Verdun (February 1916) and British efforts at the Battle of the Somme (July 1916) failed with massive casualties.
• The Allies tried to disrupt the balance by attacking secondary fronts.
• In the Mediterranean, the British tried to take the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles to isolate Turkey, but failed at Gallipoli.
• Most German African colonies were conquered by the British, and Asian colonies by Japan. The Allies occupied Ottoman territories in Palestine, Syria, Arabia, and Iraq with the help of Arab nationalists.
• Naval conflict ensued, with a British blockade of Germany prompting German submarine warfare.

Decisive Year: 1917

• Two key events altered the military situation: the Russian Revolution, which overthrew the Tsar and established a communist government, resulted Russia leaving war per the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918), ceding territory to Germany.
• The U.S. entered the war after initially declaring neutrality but supplying the Allies.
• German submarine attacks, including the sinking of the Lusitania, prompted the U.S. to join, adding a million soldiers and vast industrial power.

1918 offensive and end of the war.

• Germany launched a spring offensive after Russia's withdrawal, but were halted by U.S.
• The Allied offensive prompted internal strife within the Central Powers, with independence movements in Austria and social unrest in Germany.
• The Central Powers collapsed, with Turkey surrendering first, followed by Austria.
• Germany followed where Wilhelm II abdicated, and the war ended on November 11, 1918.

World War I (III): Consequences of the War

• The Peace of Paris refers to the treaties signed with the defeated countries, including the Treaty of Versailles (Germany), Saint Germain (Austria), Trianon (Hungary), Sèvres (Turkey), and Neully (Bulgaria).
• The Peace of Paris was based on U.S. President Wilson's Fourteen Points, aiming to prevent Germany's resurgence, maintain power balance among the victors, and isolate communist Russia by creating a sanitary cordon.

Territorial Changes

• The defeated empires (German, Austro-Hungarian, and Turkish) dissolved and lost territories.
• Under the Treaty of Versailles, Germany lost all its colonies to France and the UK, Alsace and Lorraine reverted to France, western Prussia went to Poland, and the Saar region, vital for German industry, was put under the League of Nations administration
• Austria-Hungary fragmented into Austria, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia, losing territory to Yugoslavia, Poland, and Romania.
• The Ottoman Empire became the Republic of Turkey, losing territories such as Syria, Iraq, and British Palestine.
• Poland was created with territories from Russia, Austria, and Germany, gaining sea access through the Danzig corridor, a free city administered by the League of Nations. Romania was given Transylvania from Austria-Hungary. Yugoslavia (later the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes) was also created to stabilize the Balkans.

Other consequences of the war

• WWI marked the advent of modern warfare with large armies, prolonged battles, and technologies like planes and poison gas.
• Approximately ten million soldiers died.
• Widespread destruction, famine, and malnutrition across Europe weakened populations.
• The war significantly impacted society, profoundly influencing literature and art.
• The Treaty of Versailles was seen as a diktat and Germans were held responsible for the war and made pay reparations.
• Germany lost territory, and its military was reduced, causing resentment and a desire for revenge within the German population setting the stage for later disaster.
• The League of Nations was created in 1920 to resolve conflicts peacefully but excluded the Soviet Union and the defeated nations. It was a forerunner to the UN.

The Russian Revolution

• Early 20th-century Tsarist Russia
• Early 20th-century Russia maintained an absolute monarchy under the Romanov family, where the Tsar ruled with the support of the nobility, Orthodox Church, army, and bureaucracy.
• Although there was a Parliament (the Duma), its power was limited and could be dissolved by the Tsar.
• Political freedoms were non-existent, with political police repressing opponents
• The economy was agrarian, albeit experiencing a slow industrialization focused on heavy industry and railroads, increasing the working class but not the business-owning middle class as the industry heavily relied on foreign investment.

Revolution of 1905

• The 1905 Japanese defeat of Russia triggered disturbances linked dissatisfaction with the defeat as well as economic hardship.
• On January 9, 1905, protesting crowds in front of the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg were violently dispersed, became known as Bloody Sunday.
• Strikes and peasant uprisings surged, leading to soviets (workers' councils or people's assemblies) creating a model for future grassroots organizations.
• The protests led to the Imperial Manifesto of October 1905, yet the Tsar quickly reneged concessions and tried to bring back absolute rule.

Revolutions of 1917

February Revolution of 1917

• Russia struggled immensely in WW1.

• Defeats and shortages led to strikes and demonstrations.

• The February Revolution was triggered by a peaceful demonstration on February 23 in St. Petersburg demanding "Peace and Bread", resulting in a general strike on February 25, and troops mutinied and joined the protesters the next day.

• A new government was created led by Kerensky.

• Nicholas II was forced to abdicate.

• Various groups had different ideas for Russia, but the government did not have authority everywhere in Russia while the soviets (workers and soldiers councils) were gaining power.

• The soviets pushed for peace, improved working conditions. In addition, the transfer of land to the peasants, and recognition of minority rights, aligned them with the Bolsheviks.

October Revolution of 191

• An attempted coup by conservative parties led by Kornilov showed the government's unpopularity
• Under the leadership of Lenin, the Bolsheviks prepared to attempt to seize power.
• The Bolsheviks seized strategic points and stormed the Winter Palace on the night of October 24.

Opposition

• A civil war between the Bolsheviks (the Red Army), and those loyal to the Tsar (the White Army) lasted from 1918-1921.
• By March 1918, the revolutionary government negotiated peace in the Brest-Litovks treaty so that the Soviets could focus on the civil war at home.
• The land was redistributed amongst the poor.
• All parties that opposed the Communist party were banned.
• A dictatorship began.