World War I: End of War and German Collapse

End of the War and its Legacies: Overview

• 1917 was a turning point due to American entry and the Russian revolutions.
• American entry boosted Allied morale and provided vast resources.
• Russian revolutions allowed Germany to focus on the Western front.
• Germany needed to win quickly to avoid the full impact of American strength and the effects of the Allied blockade.
• Germany's defeat in 1918, the Armistice of November 1918, and the war's immediate costs and legacies are addressed.

Reasons for Germany's Loss in 1918

• The Russian collapse allowed Germany to transfer 70 divisions to the Western front.
• Germany needed to win before the US fully deployed its resources.
• German submarine warfare failed, and the British blockade was effective.
• Domestic discontent and economic decline threatened revolution.
• Erich Ludendorff initiated the "Spring Offensive" as Germany's last chance.

1918: The Last Phase of the War – The Central Powers’ Collapse

• The Spring Offensive, starting in March 1918, resulted in significant German advances.
• "Operation Michael" began with a massive artillery bombardment, overwhelming the British 5th army.
• The Germans advanced nearly 40 miles, inflicted 200,000 casualties, and captured 70,000 prisoners and over 1,000 guns by April 5.
• Ludendorff launched four more operations, but the offensive stalled by late June.
• By August 8 ("the black day of the German Army"), it was clear Germany could not win.

Reasons for German Defeat

• Rapid German advance lacked logistical support.
• German troops were exhausted from continual offensives.
• Allied counter-attacks, strengthened by summer, culminated in the decisive Battle of Amiens on August 8.
• Germany faced a logistically adept and psychologically unified alliance with American support.
• Weakening and collapse of Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottomans.
• German divisions were diverted to support allies.
• The German army was weakened, with "weak units" and low morale due to the Spanish flu.
• "War weariness" worsened due to domestic economic disarray and food shortages.
• Germany signed an armistice on November 11, 1918, at Compiegne, France, formally ending the war.

Decision to End the War

• The decision to end the war was based on military defeat, strategic social calculation, and to avoid an Allied invasion.
• The intent was to spare the German people and allies further sacrifice.
• There was an intent to make a 'tolerable peace' within the context of Woodrow Wilson’s "Fourteen Points".

The Armistice and "Stab-in-the-Back" Theory

• Ludendorff wanted to protect the German army's reputation by blaming defeat on a civilian government, leading to the "Stab-in-the-back" theory.
• The theory blamed liberals, communists, war profiteers, and Jews for Germany's defeat, avoiding military responsibility.

Terms of the German Armistice

• Evacuation of all German-occupied territories.
• Repudiation of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and the Treaty of Bucharest.
• Demilitarization of the west bank of the Rhine and Allied occupation of the Rhineland.
• Surrender of war equipment.
• Return of Allied prisoners of war, but not German prisoners.
• Continuation of the Allied naval blockade.
• The Germans were given 72 hours to sign unconditionally with minimal negotiations.

Immediate Results: The Cost of the War

• The Spring Offensive alone caused over a million casualties on each side.
• 2,738 died on the Western front in the last few hours of the war.
• Battle deaths range from 7 to 10 million, with total military and civilian casualties around 40 million.
• The Entente Powers lost about 5.7 million soldiers, while the Central Powers lost about 4 million.
• Germany and Russia suffered the most overall.
• Over 65 million men were mobilized.
• Russia, France, Austria-Hungary, and Romania suffered the greatest casualties per percentage mobilized.
• Japan was the least affected in terms of casualties.
• Over 21 million men were seriously wounded.
• About 80,000 British soldiers suffered shell shock.
• 70% of casualties were a result of artillery bombardment.
• 230 soldiers perished for every hour of fighting.
• 11% of the entire French population was killed or wounded.
• The Spanish flu epidemic claimed over 50 million lives worldwide.
• The physical devastation included rubble-laden towns and devastated fields.
• In France alone, 2 million hectares of agricultural land and 500,000 hectares of forests were destroyed.
• 3 million dwellings and buildings were destroyed across the Western Front.
• Merchant shipping losses were massive with 7.7 million tonnes.
• The war cost over £75 billion, equivalent to trillions in modern conversion.
• The European powers borrowed tens of millions of dollars from the United States to finance the war.
• The Allies expended approximately $36,000 to kill an opposing serviceman.