World War I

World War I Summary

• World War I was fought between two coalitions, the Allies and the Central Powers, and was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history.

• An estimated 9 million soldiers were killed in combat, plus another 23 million wounded, while 5 million civilians died as a result of military action, hunger, and disease.

• The war was fought throughout Europe, the Middle East, Africa, the Pacific, and parts of Asia.

• The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary by a Bosnian Serb named Gavrilo Princip was the catalyst for the war.

• Germany's strategy in 1914 was to defeat France and then attack Russia, but this failed, and by the end of 1914, the Western Front consisted of a continuous line of trenches.

• The United States entered the war on the side of the Allies in April 1917, while the Bolsheviks seized power in the Russian October Revolution and made peace with the Central Powers in early 1918.

• Freed from the Eastern Front, Germany launched an offensive in the west in March 1918, but it failed, and the Allies took the offensive in August 1918.

• The Armistice of 11 November 1918 brought the fighting to a close, while the Paris Peace Conference imposed various settlements on the defeated powers, including the Treaty of Versailles.

• The dissolution of the Russian, German, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman Empires resulted in the creation of new independent states, among them Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia.

• The events of 1914–1918 were generally known as the Great War or simply the World War before World War II began.

• The war was preceded by a tenuous balance of power among the major European powers known as the Concert of Europe, which was challenged by a variety of factors.

• An arms race between Germany and Britain diverted huge resources into creating a German navy large enough to antagonize Britain but not defeat it.

• Conflicts in the Balkans, including the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, contributed to the outbreak of the war.World War I: Overview and Progress of the War

• The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary by a Serbian nationalist initiated the July Crisis, a month of diplomatic manoeuvring between Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia, France and Britain.

• Austria-Hungary, suspecting Serbian involvement in the assassination, delivered an ultimatum to Serbia, which led to war declarations and eventually the involvement of most of Europe in the conflict.

• The Central Powers, comprising Germany and Austria-Hungary, suffered from miscommunication and disagreements in strategy, leading to confusion and weakened efforts against their enemies.

• The Serbian campaign saw Allied victories and the first use of anti-aircraft warfare and medical evacuation by the Serbian army.

• The German offensive in Belgium and France, known as the Schlieffen Plan, was successful initially but ultimately halted by French and British forces at the First Battle of the Marne, leading to a stalemate and the beginning of trench warfare.

• Both sides struggled to develop tactics for breaching entrenched positions, leading to the use of gas and the development of new weapons such as tanks.

• The continuation of trench warfare saw several attempts by the Allies to break the German lines, including the Battle of Verdun and the Battle of the Somme, which resulted in heavy casualties for all sides.

• The war also involved clashes in Africa and the Pacific, with Allied victories leading to the seizure of German territories.

• Indian soldiers and labourers served in large numbers in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East, with 140,000 soldiers serving on the Western Front alone.

• The suffering of the war and the failure of the British government to grant self-government to India after the end of hostilities strengthened the campaign for Indian independence.

• The war caused significant social, political, and economic changes, including the decline of European empires and the rise of the United States as a global power.Summary of World War I Theatres

Western Front:

• The Western Front was characterized by trench warfare and heavy casualties.
• New, deadly technologies such as machine guns, gas, and tanks were introduced.
• The war ended with the Armistice of 11 November 1918, and the Treaty of Versailles was signed the following year.

Naval War:

• German cruisers attacked Allied merchant shipping, which the British Royal Navy systematically hunted down.
• Britain began a naval blockade of Germany, cutting off vital supplies.
• The Battle of Jutland was the largest naval battle of the war, and the British asserted their control of the sea.

Southern Theatres:

• The Balkans saw Austria-Hungary briefly occupy Serbia before being driven out.
• The Macedonian front was mostly static, but Serbian and French troops made a breakthrough in September 1918.
• The Ottomans threatened Russia's Caucasian territories and conducted large-scale ethnic cleansing of Armenian, Greek, and Assyrian Christians.
• The British and French opened overseas fronts with the Gallipoli and Mesopotamian campaigns.
• The Senussi tribe waged a small-scale guerrilla war against Allied troops.
• Total Allied casualties on the Ottoman fronts amounted to 650,000 men.

Italian Front:

• Italy joined the war on the side of the Allies in 1915 after being offered Austrian territory and sovereignty over the Dodecanese.

• The Italian army was unprepared for the major offensive required by the Treaty of London, and much of the fighting took place in difficult terrain.

• The Italian commander, Luigi Cadorna, undertook a series of frontal assaults along the Isonzo which made little progress and cost many lives.

• After a combined Austro-German force won a major victory at Caporetto, Cadorna was replaced by Armando Diaz who retreated more than 100km before stabilizing the front.Overview of World War I: Eastern and Italian Fronts, Romanian Participation, and United States Entry

• Italian Front: Italy joined the war on the side of the Allies in 1915, and after initial setbacks, launched a successful offensive in 1918 that led to the collapse of Austria-Hungary and its eventual surrender. The Armistice of Villa Giusti ended hostilities between Austria-Hungary and Italy, with Italy gaining Trieste and areas along the Adriatic Sea.

• Romanian Participation: Romania remained neutral in 1914, but joined the Entente in 1916. However, a combined German-Bulgarian-Turkish offensive forced Romania to retreat to Bucharest, which surrendered to the Central Powers in 1916. Ethnic Romanians made up a significant portion of the Austro-Hungarian army, but their loyalty faded as the war progressed. Romania signed the Treaty of Bucharest with the Central Powers in 1918, but re-entered the war on the side of the Allies in November of that year.

• Eastern Front: Russia initially launched successful offensives into Austrian Galicia and East Prussia, but suffered heavy losses and retreated from both areas by spring of 1915. The June 1916 Brusilov offensive against the Austrians was a significant victory for the Russians, but their losses weakened their offensive capabilities and led to increased disillusionment with the war. The Russian Revolution of 1917 led to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, which ceded vast territories to the Central Powers. Romania signed the Treaty of Bucharest with the Central Powers, but found itself alone on the Eastern Front after the Russian Empire left the war.

• United States Entry: The United States remained neutral in 1914, but entered the war in 1917 after the German submarine offensive and the Zimmermann Telegram. The American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) played a leading role in shaping the peace, and General John J. Pershing insisted on retaining control of American troops and refused to commit them to the front line until able to operate as independent units. The Meuse–Argonne offensive in late September 1918 was the first significant US involvement.