World History: Empires, Ideologies, Wars, and Global Issues

• Study notes for the Byzantine Empire, Medieval Period, Renaissance, Age of Exploration, Reformation/Counter-Reformation, World Wars I & II, Rise of Political/Economic Ideologies, The Cold War, Neocolonialism, and Global Issues/Problems

Byzantine Empire

• Located in the eastern part of the Roman Empire, its capital was Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul)
• Key contributions included the preservation of Roman law and Greek culture and spreading Christianity
• Notable leaders: Emperor Justinian I (codified laws) and Empress Theodora
• Fell in 1453 due to Ottoman conquest, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire

Medieval Period

• Roughly from the 5th to the late 15th century
• Feudalism was the system, structured by kings, lords, knights, and peasants
• The Catholic Church was a dominant power, influencing European politics and culture
• Key events: The Crusades (1095-1291) - military expeditions by Christians to reclaim Jerusalem
• The Black Death (1347-1351) - plague that killed millions in Europe

Renaissance

• From the 14th-17th century, originating in Italy
• Key characteristics: Humanism, focusing on human potential and achievements
• Revival of classical Greek and Roman styles in art and literature
• Notable figures: Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and William Shakespeare
• Advances in science, led by figures such as Galileo Galilei and Nicolaus Copernicus
• These advances marked Scientific Revolution

Age of Exploration

• The 15th-17th century
• Christopher Columbus discovered the Americas in 1492
• Ferdinand Magellan led the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe
• Vasco da Gama found the sea route to India
• Led to: Expansion of European empires
• Colonization of the Americas, Africa, and Asia
• Cultural exchanges and the spread of diseases (Columbian Exchange)

Reformation & Counter-Reformation

• Reformation (16th Century)
• Martin Luther started the Protestant Reformation by posting his 95 Theses (1517)
• Protestantism broke from Catholicism, leading to new Christian denominations
• Corruption in the Catholic Church (e.g., the sale of indulgences) was a key issue
• The idea of salvation by faith alone was a key issue
• Counter-Reformation was the Catholic Church's response to the Reformation
• The Council of Trent reformed church practices
• Jesuits were religious order created to spread Catholic teachings and combat Protestantism

World War I (1914-1918)

• Caused by nationalism, imperialism, militarism, and alliance systems
• The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary was a key trigger
• Key Alliances: Allied Powers, Central Powers
• Treaty of Versailles (1919): Ended the war but imposed heavy reparations on Germany
• It led to the redrawing of national borders and creation of new countries
• The League of Nations was formed to promote peace

World War II (1939-1945)

• Causes: The rise of totalitarian regimes and unresolved issues from World War
• Expansionist policies of Hitler, Mussolini, and Japan
• Invasion of Poland (1939) triggered the war
• Holocaust: Genocide of 6 million Jews by Nazi Germany
• D-Day (1944): Allied invasion of Normandy
• Atomic Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (1945): Led to Japan's surrender
• The Axis powers were defeated
• The United Nations was created to prevent future conflicts

Rise of Political and Economic Ideologies

• Communism, advocated by Karl Marx, aims for a classless society
• Capitalism is an economic system based on private ownership and free markets
• Fascism is an authoritarian regime with dictatorial power
• Socialism advocates for state ownership of industries and wealth redistribution
• Democracy is system of government where power lies with the people

The Cold War

• From 1947-1991
• Key Players: United States (capitalist) vs. Soviet Union (communist)
• Major Events: Regional Alliances, NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)
• Military alliance of Western countries
• Warsaw Pact: Military alliance of Eastern Bloc countries
• Space Race: U.S. vs. USSR for space dominance
• Nuclear Arms Race: Both superpowers developed nuclear weapons, leading to fears of mutually assured destruction
• End of the Cold War (1991): Collapse of the Soviet Union

Neocolonialism

• Economic, political, or cultural influence by a powerful country over a weaker one
• This is often achieved through indirect means
• Economic dependency of former colonies on European powers
• Influence of the U.S. and Soviet Union in the post-WWII era

Global Issues & Problems

• Climate Change: Global warming due to human activities, leading to rising temperatures, extreme weather events, and environmental destruction
• Global Poverty: Widespread poverty, exacerbated by inequality, especially in developing nations
• Human Rights Violations: Issues like child labor, gender inequality, and lack of freedom in certain regions
• International Conflicts: Ongoing wars, terrorism, and tensions between nations
• Public Health: Challenges such as pandemics, malnutrition, and lack of access to healthcare