World History Chapter 12: Fifteenth Century

Study Notes

The chapter covers the fifteenth century, exploring various societies and civilizations around the world. Different regions had varying forms of social organization, political structures, and cultural expressions.
This period saw the meeting of previously isolated parts of the world, leading to significant interactions.

Paleolithic Persistence: Gatherer-hunter societies in Australia and North America still practiced these traditions, demonstrating adaptability and environmental management. Some groups displayed complex social structures and trade networks.
Agricultural Village Societies: Egalitarian kinship societies existed among the Igbo and Iroquois. While some lacked centralized states, they maintained trade and governance systems (i.e., the Iroquois' "Great Law of Peace").
Pastoral Peoples: Pastoral groups like the Timur/Tamerlane (d. 1405) in Central Asia and the Fulbe in West Africa were significant. Samarkand was a notable center in this region.

Ming Dynasty China: Emperor Yongle (r. 1402-1422) presided over a period of Confucian policies, economic growth, and remarkable maritime expeditions led by Zheng He (1405-1433).
European Comparisons: Europe witnessed smaller, warring states alongside the rise of Renaissance humanism.
Maritime Voyages: The Portuguese took the lead in maritime exploration after 1415, utilizing smaller ships and fleets in contrast to the large Chinese expeditions. Motivations, goals, and support for these voyages also differed.

Ottoman and Safavid Empires: The Ottomans were powerful and long-lasting, challenging Europe in 1453. The Shia Safavids clashed with the Sunni Ottomans, representing religious and political differences within the Islamic world.
Songhay and Mughal Empires: Islam's influence extended across trade routes (trans-Sahara trade) and into India. Religious diversity characterized India and, in Southeast Asia, Muslim merchants and Sufi mystics engaged in trade. Malacca was a pivotal trading point.

Aztec Empire (Mexica): The Mexica, a conquest state, had a complex social and political system, centered at Tenochtitlan with important market centers. During the time of Tlacaelel (1398-1480), the ideology of human sacrifice played a prominent role.
Inca Empire: A vast empire spanning 2,500 miles with a population of 10 million. A sophisticated state bureaucracy managed resettlement and standardized the Quechua language. The mita system was a significant labor system. Gender parallelism existed in their society, but equality was not achieved.

The fifteenth century saw increased maritime trade and well-established long-distance trade routes, fostering connections between different cultures and empires.

Global trade expanded but wasn't fully realized by 1500. Afro-Eurasia, the Americas, and Oceania were increasingly connected.
The industrial revolution profoundly changed societies, and population growth accelerated. Urbanization, commercialization, literacy, and the modern era followed.

The chapter poses hypothetical scenarios and questions about historical events showcasing the importance of chance, individual decisions, and historical contingency. Specific examples include the death of Great Khan Ogodei, scuttling the Ming fleet, and the siege of Vienna.