World Cultures and History Midterm Study Guide

The process of societies becoming more complex, with advancements in areas like government, social structure, religion, writing, and art.

Large settlements with a continuous food supply that supports a growing population.

The system that maintains order and provides for the needs of a civilization, including food and defense.

A social structure based on wealth and power, with a clear division between upper classes and laborers.

A set of beliefs that give meaning to life, explain the forces of nature, and provide rules for behavior.

A system of recorded symbols used for communication, record-keeping, and creative expression.

The expression of creativity through mediums like architecture, sculpture, and painting.

The land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, known for its fertile soil and annual flooding, which led to the rise of early Mesopotamian civilizations.

The civilization that arose in Mesopotamia, known for their polytheistic beliefs, theocratic government, and focus on farming, trading, and industry.

A river that provided transportation, communication, irrigation, and protection from invasions for Ancient Egyptians.

The study of early human societies by analyzing artifacts like tools, weapons, and art. Archaeologists examine pottery, tools, and weapons to understand the social and military structures of ancient civilizations. They also study remains like skin and bones to learn about the diets and activities of early people.

The study of human life and cultures using artifacts and fossils to recreate a picture of everyday life in past societies. Anthropologists study fossils and artifacts to understand the lives of early people.

A group of human-like creatures that walked upright. Earliest hominids are dated back to 4 million years ago.

A more advanced hominid with a larger brain than its ancestors. Known as “handy human” for their potential use of stone tools.

This hominid emerged around 1.5 million years ago. They walked upright and had body proportions similar to modern humans. Homo erectus are believed to be the first hominids to leave Africa.

Came into existence around 250,000 years ago. Homo sapiens mastered fire and developed advanced tools and communication.

A technique used to determine the age of artifacts and fossils. It involves analyzing the radioactive decay of carbon-14.

A technique used to determine the age of artifacts and fossils based on the light emitted when they are heated. Used to date pottery and stone tools.

Scientists study the physical remains of early humans, Including bones, teeth, and artifacts, to gain insights into their biology, behavior, and diet.

Scientists use microscopic examination to analyze the structure and composition of artifacts. This helps to understand how objects were created and used.

A writing system using pictures and symbols used on temples and tombs.

A simpler form of hieroglyphics written on papyrus for business and general needs.

A simplified alphabet of 22 signs representing sounds, used by the Phoenicians.

A religion centered around the worship of one god, emphasizing unity and monotheism. It influenced later religions.

A civilization known for its urban planning, advanced sanitation, and the combination of religious and political power.

The monsoon winds are critical for agriculture in India; without them, crops fail, causing hardship.

A society with merchants, artisans, and slaves, where supernatural forces were believed to support rulers.

A period of Chinese history known for bronze casting, oracle bone divination, and belief in ancestral spirits.

A system of divination using heated animal bones or turtle shells to interpret cracks and predict the future.

The belief that the actions of deceased ancestors could influence the fortunes of the living in both positive and negative ways.

The Zhou dynasty lasted for 800 years, making it the longest-lasting dynasty in Chinese history.

The Zhou dynasty adopted the tradition of dividing territories and appointing officials, similar to the Shang before them.

The Zhou believed their right to rule came from the Mandate of Heaven, a divine right to rule, justifying their power.

The Zhou king was viewed as a link between heaven and earth, responsible for maintaining balance and peace.

The Zhou king's responsibility was to keep the gods satisfied to protect the people from disasters.

The Zhou kings were believed to be commanded by heaven to be rulers and maintain harmony between worlds.

Significant architectural structures found in Shang China highlight the advanced skills and resources of the Shang kings.

Shang kings established five different capital cities before settling on Anyang, demonstrating their power and expansion.

The valleys along the Huang He and Chang Jiang rivers were fertile regions crucial for food production in ancient China.

China's geography, with mountains and deserts, isolated it from other parts of Asia, shaping its cultural development.

The Appenine Mountains divide Italy, a peninsula where Ancient Rome is located. Situated by the Tiber River, Rome had access to the sea while remaining out of reach from pirates.

The Latins were Indo-European people who migrated to Italy between 1500-1000 B.C. They established settlements on Rome's hills, living as farmers and herders.

Augustus, also known as Caesar, was appointed dictator but declined the request to step down. He sparked a civil war against Pompey, eventually becoming dictator for life due to his growing power and achievements.

A group of senators assassinated Augustus, believing it would restore the Roman Republic. However, their action led to another civil war.

The First Triumvirate comprised Crassus, Pompey, and Caesar. Together, they controlled the Roman Republic. However, Crassus' death led to clashes between Pompey and Caesar.

The Senate concluded that Pompey should rule alone after Crassus' death escalated conflicts between Pompey and Caesar.

This war was fought between Rome and Carthage for control of the western Mediterranean. Rome eventually won, forcing Carthage to surrender Sicily in 241 B.C., but not without vengeance.

Octavian, Caesar's heir, formed the Second Triumvirate with Antony and Lepidus. However, Octavian and Antony later agreed to divide the Roman world between them.

Octavian ultimately gained supreme power, due to various factors including the influence of Caesar's name, the support of the military, and the skill of his advisors.

Rome's growth was fueled by various factors, including its strong leadership, practical laws and physics, and advantageous geography, with influences from Greeks and Etruscans contributing to its rise.

The ancient city-state of Sparta was characterized by its strict military focus and its emphasis on discipline, strength, and loyalty. Spartan society was highly structured, with citizens trained from a young age for warfare. They believed in self-reliance and valued physical prowess above all else. Sparta also had a unique political system, where two kings ruled alongside an assembly of elders and a council of five ephors.

Athens, another prominent city-state in ancient Greece, was renowned for its cultural achievements and its democratic ideals. Athens was home to philosophers, artists, and writers who shaped the intellectual landscape of the ancient world. The Athenian democracy, while imperfect, allowed citizens to participate in the political decision-making process. However, Athenian society also relied heavily on slaves, who performed most of the labor.

Draco's code, a set of laws established in Athens in the 7th century BC, was known for its harsh punishments, including severe penalties and even the death penalty for minor offenses, including theft and murder. The code was intended to create a more just society but was criticized for its lack of flexibility and its reliance on harsh retribution. It also enshrined debt slavery, where people unable to repay their debts were forced into servitude..

Solon, an Athenian statesman and reformer, implemented several significant reforms in Athens during the 6th century BC. These included the abolition of debt slavery, which freed many citizens from servitude. Solon also introduced a new constitution that established a more democratic form of government, giving more voice to the common people. His reforms helped to stabilize Athenian society and laid the foundation for the Athenian democracy.

Cleisthenes was another pivotal Athenian reformer who implemented crucial changes in the 6th century BC. He reformed the Athenian political system by establishing a new system of government that gave more power to the people. He introduced the concept of a representative assembly, granting citizens the right to participate in the decision-making process. His reforms paved the way for the development of a full-fledged democracy in Athens.

The Persian Wars, a series of conflicts between the Greeks and the Persian Empire in the 5th century BC, were a defining moment in Greek history. Despite being outnumbered, the Greeks, aided by their strategic alliances and their fighting spirit, were able to defeat the Persians on several occasions, notably at Marathon, Salamis, and Plataea. These victories preserved Greek independence and ensured the cultural and political development of the Greek world.

Alexander the Great, a Macedonian king, conquered a vast empire in the 4th century BC, spreading Greek culture and influence across the ancient world. He united Greece and led his armies to conquer Persia, Egypt, and parts of India, creating one of the largest empires in ancient history. Alexander was known for his military genius, his ambition, and his vision of a unified world. He also encouraged cultural fusion, blending Greek ideas and practices with those of other civilizations he encountered.

The Hellenistic period followed the death of Alexander the Great, and it marked a significant shift in the history of the ancient world. It saw the fusion of Greek culture with those of the East, creating a new and vibrant blend of ideas and practices. This period witnessed the rise of new cities, the development of new philosophical and scientific schools, and the spread of Greek art and literature. The Hellenistic world was characterized by a mix of Greek, Persian, Egyptian, and other cultural influences.

The Hellenistic kingdoms were a series of states that emerged after the death of Alexander the Great. This included Egypt, Syria, Pergamum, and Macedonia. These kingdoms were ruled by Alexander's generals and successors, who struggled for control of the vast empire he had built. These kingdoms often engaged in conflicts and alliances, shaping the political landscape of the Eastern Mediterranean during the Hellenistic era.

The fragmentation of the empire after the death of Alexander the Great played a major role in the decline of the empire. This fragmentation led to political instability, internal conflicts, and economic turmoil. Alexander's empire was divided among his generals, who fought for control over different regions. The lack of unity and cohesion weakened the empire and made it vulnerable to outside threats.