What is Research? Design, Measurement, and Analysis

What is Research?

• Research entails systematic investigation into materials and sources for establishing facts and drawing new conclusions.
• This definition is per the English Oxford Dictionary.
• Research also involves obtaining information and uncovering the truth.

Clinical Research

• Clinical research is a comprehensive study focused on the safety and effectiveness of promising advancements in patient care related to clinical conditions.
• Clinical research aims to improve methods of practice through knowledge translation by making information accessible to the public.

The Research Trinity

• The research trinity consists of design, measurement, and analysis.

Design

• Establishes the "integrity" of the research
• Involves internal and external validity (truthfulness).

Measurement

• Determines "constructs" and operational definitions.
• Reliability of measurements (consistency of results).
• An example operational definition is measuring intelligence; it needs to be defined what is measured as intelligence.

Analysis

• Establishes conclusion validity by relating final results to methods to ensure confidence in conclusions.
• This ensures confidence in how the study was carried out
• Evaluates hypotheses using research and statistical analysis as an educated guess.

Likert Scale

• This is a line scale used to assess attitudes or values.
• Is a way to quantify an opinion with the example, "do athletes make too much money".

Bar Graphs

• Error bars indicate variability in salaries.

Sources of Knowledge

• Tradition involves skills and knowledge handed down over time, with each generation starting with an advanced state of knowledge.
• Authority comes from specialists who possess detailed knowledge but is limited if specialists are uninformed on current best evidence or access to them is restricted.
• Trial & error is altering practice trying something new, evaluating it, maintaining, modifying or eliminating it; approach not systematic and results can't be replicated.
• Deductive & inductive reasoning involves logical reasoning that is systematic, thoughtful and can be replicated.
• Scientific research.

Anecdotal vs Scientific-Based Evidence

• Anecdotal evidence is a short, interesting or funny personal story.
• A problem is that there is a tendency to overvalue personal experience and anecdotes when drawing conclusions.

Law of Small Numbers

• Extreme outcomes are more likely when considering a small number of cases.

Outlier

• A case that is distinct from the majority of other cases.

Tradition

• Skills and knowledge are given down over time
• Advantageous as each gen starts with more advanced knowledge
• Is a greater component of training than ongoing education.
• Traditional practice isn't always founded in evidence or in line with current evidence.

Authority

• This comes with being a specialist or licensed professional in the area.
• They'll have more detailed knowledge within their realm
• Advantageous if specialists is well informed with real evidence and not always possible.

Trial and Error

• This alters practice based on someone new, evaluation outcome and maintaining something.
• This is not systematical and haphazardized, also it is difficult to determine why a solution has worked.
• Results cannot be replicated.

Deductive and Inductive Reasoning

• This applies logical reasoning in a systemical way that is replicable to come up with a solution

Deductive Reasoning

• An example is that dementia increases into older age, so it is generally assumed if you get old, you'll get dementia.

Inductive Reasoning

• This is based on specific observations and my grandpa has dementia, so all older adults have dementia.

The Scientific Method

• Incorporates inductive and deductive reasoning, systematic, controlled, and involves a sequence of events.
• Needs control where the experimenter attempts to control factors that may interfere with a study.
• Empirical approach involves direct observation and using logical arguments to prove something new.

Method

• The method involves deducing a question from theory, collecting and analyzing data, and interpreting findings and applying inductive reasoning.

Steps of the Scientific Method

• Make an observation.
• Formulate a question and hypothesis.
• Design an experiment to approach answering the question.
• Execute the experiment
• Analyze the results for a direct answer to a question
• Draw conclusion.
• Formulate a new hypothesis and replicate (though replication is not as common as it should be).

Key Elements

• The key elements are skepticism, open-mindedness, objectivity, empirical vs. non-empirical research, creativity, and communication (replication).

Title Page

• Identifies the work's title, authors' names, and their institutional affiliations.

Abstract

• A short summary of the entire report.

Introduction

• Offers background from previous research on the topic and the theoretical and empirical basis for the study's hypotheses.

Method

• Describes how the researcher conducted the study, including participant descriptions, materials, study design, and data collection methods.

Results

• Outlines the study's findings, using a combination of statistical analyses and narrative.

Discussion

• Is an analysis and interpretation of findings, noting strengths, weaknesses, and implications for future research.

References

• Provides information for all the sources used in the paper

Types of research

• Quantitative research involves measurement of outcomes using numerical data under standardized conditions and applying statistical procedures.
• Qualitative research involves deriving conclusions from open-ended questionnaires, surveys, interviews, and observations as well as describing human behavior in different settings.

Basic Research

• Is at the lowest level of the question being asked, explores underlying psychological, anatomical, or physiological mechanisms
• Direct practical applications may not be immediately apparent.

Applied Research

• Research that has direct practical application is based on a general premise that is not directly tested in the study
• May be considered transitional research which applies basic scientific findings to clinically relevant issues to create scientific questions based on dilemmas.

Continuum of Research

• Descriptive research describes individuals on a basis of variables.
• Exploratory research examines the interaction of various factors on behavior/characteristics.
• Correlational-predictive research is examining relationships between variables (not establishing cause and effect).
• Case study is describing specific situations.
• Normative study is establishing baseline statistics for specific groups of people based on factors like age, sex, or ethnicity.
  • Epidemiology is examining association between various conditions

Types of Studies

• Cohort study: Following people over time observing if a condition develops
• Examining exposure to possible risk factors and involving long term follow ups
• Case Control Study: Selects groups of individuals based on the investigated condition.
• The case means people having conditions and control consists of people who do not.

Correlational-Predictive Research

• Examines the relationships between variables without establishing cause and effect.
• Involves simple correlation assessing relationship between 2 variables including regression analysis (prediction for future).
• Can attempt to predict variables with numerical equation.

Methodological Studies

• Evaluates/demonstrates the reliability, validity, and/or viability of measurement instruments and procedures.
• Validity signifies if the instrument measuring the intended variable. It is importnat for any measuremtn (questionnaires etc)

Reliability

• Consistency of the instrument

Experimental Research

• Designed to compare groups, establish cause and effect, and uses manipulation of certain conditions.

RTC Randomized Controlled Trial

• Groups are either having different trials.
• It includes usage of control groups, placebos, random assignments, blinding of tests.
• ""Gold standard” for experimental designs"

Quasi-experimental Design

• Is similar to experimental one but with less control. It cannot be done by randomly assigning people to groups
• Also has more internal validity.

Pre-experimental Designs

• This is similar to quasi but with the least control of the threats to the internal validity
• No randomization of the sample.

Correlational Study

• Identifies both dependent and independent variables.

Constructing a Research Study

• Starts with identifying the area of interest and the questions you would like to study.

Developing a Research Question

• Involves introspection, finding exceptions, and conceptualizing how to measure observations.
• Defining personality, the "big five" traits or other traits must be operationalized.
• Statistical hypothesis involves probability of occurrence related to Type I and II errors (p value).
• Scientific law is a statement based on repeated experimental observation and conclusive observations.
• Scientific theories like physics rely much more on theories then laws

Theories

• A theory is a model of the universe (or restricted part of it), and a set of rules that relate quantities in the model to observations
• The theory has to accurately describe a large number of observations.
• Theories are provisional and can be disproven.
• Theories surivival depends on data agreeing with predictions

Hypothesis Evaluation

• Key concepts evaluated, should correspond with existing reality.
• Parsimony must be accounted for.
• Barnum effect is the tendency of people to believe general descriptions of personality are highly accurate.
• The key concepts is that they are all falsifiable or refutable with empirical and statistical evidence.

Variable and Constants

• Elements in a study that can vary or assume different values .Qualitative or quantitative.
• Constants are a factor in a study that does not change being confounding items.

Operational Definition

• This defines the concept in relationship to circumstance.

Inductive Hypothesis

• Based on own findings
• Examining patterns in research papers of public data.

Research Hypothesis

• States what experimenter thinks will happen.
• Variables will be different or related to each other.

Does it correspondence with reality?

• Based on past research.
• Should be based on tradition thinking.

Is it Parsimonious?

• The phenomena should behave in the most economical way.

Barnum Effect

• The tendency to believe general descriptions of their personality are highly accurate.
• It should be falsifiable and refutable.

Occam's Razor

• The simplest answer to a problem is the right choice, complex doesnt always mean good.

Experimental Design - Variables

• Independent variable (x) - A variable that can be multiple levels.
• Dependent variable (y) - The outcome variable or what is being measured.

Non-Experimental Design

• Involves the explanatory predictor of observing natural behavior that does not establish cause and effect.
• Criterion (or response) variable measures outcomes and designs.

Research Studies and Sampling

• Obtains measures from qualitative and quantitative data.
• In Canada, people must volunteer on studies. They must understadn relevant information.

Qualitative Research

• Classifies the participant based on measure.

Quantitative

• Has an assigned number to the participant data. Indicates ammount

Ethics in Research

• Involves ethics of what is right and wrong to

Research involves systematic investigation to establish facts and draw conclusions. Clinical research studies the safety of advancements in patient care, aiming to improve practice. Design, measurement, and analysis form the research trinity, establishing the integrity of the research.