WGS UNIT 5 - Forms of Labor and Gender
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Questions and Answers

What does Cardi B's presence represent according to Sherri Williams?

act of resistance

Who are the authors of the 2016 essay 'A Corporation in Feminist Clothing'?

Judith Taylor, Josée Johnston, and Krista Whitehead

What have scholarly critiques focused on regarding corporate messages?

production rather than reception

The authors emphasize the ____ of feminist ideals and their commodification.

<p>commodification</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are some examples of companies analyzed in the essay?

<p>Outdoor Voices, Patagonia, Reformation, Gillette</p> Signup and view all the answers

What were the goals of the study conducted by Judith Taylor, Josée Johnston, and Krista Whitehead?

<p>Methodology and goals</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the consensus among study participants regarding the Dove campaign?

<p>It should promote transgression.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Who wrote 'A Brief History of Working Women' (1999)?

<p>Sharlene Hesse-Biber, Gregg Lee Carter</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Sharlene Hesse-Biber and Gregg Lee Carter's 1999 essay, they focus on __ main periods in American history.

<p>five</p> Signup and view all the answers

Women's experiences differed based on their racial identities: White, African American, Latina/Chicana, & __ ___.

<p>Native American</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the pre-industrial era, the ___ was the primary economic unit, and family members were dependent on one another for basic sustenance.

<p>family</p> Signup and view all the answers

Colonial times were characterized by a strict and simple division of labor between men & women, assigning them to the fields & house, or to the __ __ __ __, respectively.

<p>public and private spheres</p> Signup and view all the answers

White female laborers earned substantially more than the lowest-paid unskilled, free, white male workers.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

In colonial America, women of African descent were often treated as ___ or animals.

<p>beasts</p> Signup and view all the answers

Women in Native American communities had a __ __, where inheritance and family name were through the female line.

<p>matrilineal structure</p> Signup and view all the answers

The early industrialization period saw a transition from a rural agrarian economy to an __ economy.

<p>urban industrial</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was one of the main roles assigned to men during the early industrialization period?

<p>Provider</p> Signup and view all the answers

Arguments rationalizing women's exclusion from the workplace often cited __ and __ arguments.

<p>biological, social</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary factor for women entering the workforce during WWI?

<p>Men were unavailable due to agricultural work or the war.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did Francis Cabot Lowell provide for young women working in his mills?

<p>Supervised boardinghouses</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Great Depression intensified the attitude that a woman with a job was __ that job away from a male bread-winner.

<p>taking</p> Signup and view all the answers

By 1960, what percentage of married women were employed?

<p>32%</p> Signup and view all the answers

What trend did married women of all racial backgrounds follow in the 1940s through 1960s?

<p>Became increasingly likely to enter, remain in, or rejoin the workplace.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which percentage of African American women were in domestic service by 1940?

<p>59.9%</p> Signup and view all the answers

Women's lives in the U.S. differ dramatically depending on race, class, and marital status.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term used to describe barriers preventing women from advancing in white-collar fields?

<p>Glass ceiling</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the 'glass escalator' refer to?

<p>Processes whereby men in traditionally female-dominated fields are favored.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is 'horizontal occupational segregation'?

<p>The tendency for women and men to work in different kinds of jobs, where jobs held by women are valued less.</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the 2017 essay by Schwarz, Kennedy, and Britton, who are considered to be among the most vulnerable populations to human trafficking?

<p>Children in foster care, homeless youth, undocumented individuals, adolescents with disabilities, survivors of child abuse.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Define human trafficking according to the study by Schwarz, Kennedy, and Britton.

<p>Commercial activity induced by fraud, force, or coercion.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Feminist abolitionists believe in the right to engage in sex work.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The term used to describe the gender pay discrimination law is the _____ __ __ of 1963.

<p>Equal Pay Act</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does 'devalued labor' refer to?

<p>Labor that is historically seen as unimportant.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the dichotomy discussed in the human-trafficking debate?

<p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do immigration reformers advocate?

<p>Rights-based policies</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does 'carceral feminism' refer to?

<p>A strategy within the U.S. carceral state that seeks policy change through punitive means.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the definition of 'carceral state'?

<p>A cultural and political formation where justice and liberation struggles are recast in prison terms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the discussion of pleasure and danger, participants encounter _____, intersecting forces.

<p>constrained agency</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is 'constrained choice'?

<p>Choices made from a position of limited structural power.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Who is the author of 'This is the Hidden Financial Cost of Being an LGBTQ American Today'?

<p>Anna Swartz</p> Signup and view all the answers

Unemployment rates among LGBTQ Americans have been decreasing.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did Ruth Bader Ginsburg fight against?

<p>Discrimination on the basis of sex</p> Signup and view all the answers

Who wrote 'Women Are Just Better At This Stuff'?

<p>Rose Hackman</p> Signup and view all the answers

What concept derived from sociology has entered common parlance?

<p>Emotional labor</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was Cardi B's breakout single?

<p>'Bodak Yellow'</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Cardi B’s song 'WAP' represent?

<p>An unapologetic embrace of female sexuality</p> Signup and view all the answers

Cardi B believes that relationships are perfect and without issues.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Authors and Work

  • Sharlene Hesse-Biber and Gregg Lee Carter wrote "A Brief History of Working Women" in 1999.

Racial Diversity in Women's Work

  • The essay analyzes women's work in relation to their racial identities including White, African American, Latina/Chicana, and Native American.
  • Women's experiences were shaped by race, class, and marital status across five main historical periods.

Women's Work in Pre-Industrial America

  • In pre-industrial America (before 1750), the family was the main economic unit.
  • There was a strict division of labor with men working in public roles and women in domestic spheres, though some women worked in masculine roles like tavern-keepers.
  • Female laborers earned significantly less—30% less than the lowest-paid white males and 20% less than hired male slaves.

African American Women's Labor

  • African American women in colonial America faced dehumanization and were expected to perform heavy labor.
  • Enslaved women often worked in both physical labor and sexual exploitation, with the growing institution of slavery demanding cheap agricultural manpower.
  • White women often benefited from enslaved women’s labor, taking on supervisory roles in domestic work.

Native American Women's Role

  • Native American women held substantial agricultural control within matrilineal and matrilocal structures.
  • Colonization disrupted traditional societal roles and family structures, often imposing patriarchal norms.

Changes During Early Industrialization

  • The transition to industrialization shifted women's work from home-based to factory contexts, especially in textile industries.
  • Women were initially contracted for work using machines brought to their homes, later moving to factories.
  • With industrialization, gender roles solidified, separating male and female spheres of activity.

Ideologies of Work and Gender

  • The "separate spheres" ideology emerged, defining men as providers and women as supporters managing household duties.
  • The "cult of true womanhood" idealized women as fragile and subservient to domestic needs.

Decline of Household Unit

  • As industrial activity moved away from the household, justifications for excluding women from the workforce arose, claiming women lacked the strength for physical labor.
  • Scientific arguments perpetuated the notion that women were unsuited for the marketplace.

Employment During Industrialization

  • By the late 1830s, immigrants began filling factory jobs, with an increased number of female workers transitioning from native backgrounds to immigrant backgrounds.
  • Women found work in diverse fields beyond textiles, including teaching, nursing, and office jobs, though often still faced discrimination.

Women's Employment Shifts in the Great Depression

  • The Great Depression heightened the stigma against working women, but many women entered the workforce for economic necessity.
  • Workforce participation increased notably among married women in the 1930s, though part-time and seasonal jobs were prevalent.

Impact of World Wars on Women's Labor

  • WWI and WWII saw an influx of women entering the workforce, particularly in factories, as men went to war.
  • Despite gaining employment opportunities, returning soldiers often displaced women from their jobs, especially white women, while women of color faced systemic workplace challenges.

Rise of Married Women Workers Post-WWII

  • The post-war period saw a significant increase in married women joining the workforce, driven by demographic changes and economic necessity.
  • By 1995, 61% of married women were employed, showing a marked cultural shift in women's roles in society.

Women of Color in the 20th Century

  • Throughout the 20th century, women of color faced restrictive hiring practices, leading many to work in domestic services.
  • By the 1940s, better opportunities arose in manufacturing, and significant migrations of Latina women occurred for labor needs.
  • Asian American women increasingly populated assembly jobs, demonstrating a shift in labor dynamics by the century's end.### Women’s Labor and Economic Structures
  • Cultural depictions of women in American history often emphasize interpersonal relationships and unpaid labor within the domestic sphere.
  • Paid or enslaved women's labor has significantly influenced the U.S. economy since the colonial era.
  • Women's experiences vary drastically based on race, class, and marital status, highlighting ongoing disparities.

Work and Gender Dynamics

  • Activities are categorized as feminine or masculine, with those linked to femininity being undervalued.
  • Women are more likely to perform specific housework tasks and receive lower pay compared to men.
  • Women currently comprise 40% of breadwinners in families with children, reflecting shifts in economic participation.

Gender, Class, and Race in the Workplace

  • Contemporary women do less housework than in previous eras but often outsource it to less economically privileged women, frequently women of color.
  • Women are employed in all occupations, though they generally earn less than men, with an especially pronounced wage gap for women of color.

Barriers to Advancement

  • The glass ceiling represents invisible barriers that hinder women from attaining high-ranking positions within white-collar jobs.
  • Related concepts include the glass escalator, where men in female-dominated fields receive preferential treatment, and the glass precipice, which places marginalized individuals in precarious leadership roles.
  • The Equal Pay Act of 1963 mandates equal pay for equal work, aiming to decrease the gender wage gap, though disparities persist within professions.
  • Horizontal and vertical occupational segregation contribute to wage disparities, where women often occupy lesser-paid roles and specialties.

Discrimination Impacting Wages

  • Patterns of overt and covert discrimination reinforce institutional inequities based on gender, race, and social class, contributing to the gender wage gap.

Comparable Worth Concept

  • Comparable worth aims to address wage disparities by evaluating jobs based on experience, skill, and training rather than gender. States have enacted varying laws regarding this concept.

Gender Wage Gap Metrics

  • The gender wage gap is calculated by comparing women's median earnings to men's, revealing significant disparities and excluding part-time workers, who tend to be lower-paid.

Corporate Wage Disparities

  • The most significant wage gap exists between corporate executives and lower-level employees, exemplified by CEO compensation being over 300 times that of average workers.

Vulnerability to Human Trafficking

  • Certain populations are more susceptible to human trafficking, including foster children, youth experiencing homelessness, undocumented individuals, and survivors of abuse.

Definitions of Key Terms

  • Sex Work: Commercial sexual activities exchanged for money.
  • Human Trafficking: Commercial activity induced by fraud, force, or coercion, which may include various forms of labor.

Feminist Perspectives on Sex Work and Trafficking

  • Feminist abolitionists view sex work as inherently exploitative and advocate for criminalization of clients to reduce demand.
  • Autonomy feminists emphasize the right to choose sex work as legitimate employment, favoring decriminalization to ensure safety and agency.

Dichotomy in Feminist Views

  • The debate between abolitionist and autonomy feminists creates an opposition between human trafficking and sex work, reducing complex realities to binary perspectives.

Carceral Feminism Impact

  • Carceral feminism operates within a punitive framework, advocating for policies that criminalize sex work and disproportionately impact marginalized communities, especially people of color.

Agency and Structural Power

  • Participants in studies on sex work articulated experiences of pleasure, agency, and danger, highlighting the complexity of their decisions and vulnerabilities within oppressive structures.
  • Constrained choice reflects the limited agency available to individuals amidst significant social and economic pressures.### Structural Injustice in Sex Work and Human Trafficking
  • Sex workers and survivors of human trafficking face a range of economic and identity constraints in the United States, leading to restricted agency.
  • The influence of state power manifests in anti-immigration policies, the prison system, and neoliberal economic policies, negatively impacting these individuals.
  • Poverty and the carceral state closely intertwine, limiting choices and freedoms for sex workers.
  • The ongoing theoretical debate around the decriminalization of sex work often overlooks the complex realities faced by individuals in the sex industry.

Job Disparities Among LGBTQ Americans

  • LGBTQ Americans experience higher unemployment rates, with a 2017 rate of 13% compared to 9% for the general population.
  • Trans and nonbinary individuals face even steeper unemployment at 16%.
  • Self-reported discrimination indicates bias as a significant factor driving unemployment in the LGBTQ demographic.
  • One in four LGBT employees reported workplace discrimination in 2011, often without legal recourse.
  • Prior to June 2020, many states allowed termination based on sexual orientation or gender identity due to an absence of protections.
  • State legal frameworks often undermine employer policies against LGBT discrimination.
  • Ruth Bader Ginsberg's early work involved legal arguments against discriminatory tax laws affecting men's rights as caregivers.
  • The 1972 court ruling in favor of her husband's case set a precedent for more equitable treatment under the law.
  • Lesbians and gay men earn significantly less than straight counterparts, while bisexual men tend to earn slightly more.
  • In June 2020, the Bostock v. Clayton County ruling extended civil rights protections to include discrimination based on sexual orientation and transgender status.
  • Future LGBTQI+ employment rights may be jeopardized with potential changes in the Supreme Court's composition.

Ongoing Challenges for LGBTQ Rights

  • Despite legal advancements, LGBTQ+ individuals still confront obstacles to full equality under the law.
  • The stability of LGBTQI+ rights is questionable with shifts in the Supreme Court makeup, especially following Ginsberg's death.
  • Employment discrimination correlates with financial instability and lower lifetime earnings for LGBTQ Americans.

Emotional Labor in Various Contexts

  • Emotional labor, a concept from sociology, refers to managing and manipulating feelings to meet job expectations.
  • This concept is particularly relevant for women in personal and professional life, highlighting their roles as nurturers and peacekeepers.

Gender Expectations in the Workforce

  • Service workers, especially those in tip-dependent roles, engage more in emotional labor to enhance client experiences.
  • Female professionals in white-collar jobs often face expectations to manage workplace emotions more than their male counterparts.
  • In academia, female professors are pushed to adopt emotional roles despite varying personal capabilities.

Gender Dynamics in Relationships

  • Women in egalitarian relationships often end up managing emotional needs and household upkeep, reflecting broader societal patterns.
  • Birth control and family planning responsibilities frequently fall disproportionately on women.

Sherri Williams on Cardi B's Feminism

  • Cardi B is framed as an unlikely feminist hero, raising questions about the inclusivity and accessibility of feminist discourse.
  • Issues of balancing academic critique with pop culture empowerment and the limitations of access to feminist ideas are explored.

Cardi B's Musical Achievements

  • "Bodak Yellow" marked Cardi B's first number-one hit, making her the first solo female rapper to achieve this since 1998.
  • Her album “Invasion of Privacy” received critical acclaim and a Grammy nomination, breaking new ground for female rap artists.

Cardi B's Journey

  • Cardi B's transition to exotic dancing was driven by economic necessity and a desire to escape a toxic relationship.
  • Her experiences highlight disparities in wealth representation and personal struggles faced by individuals from diverse backgrounds.

Cardi B and Feminine Expression

  • The song "WAP" sparked debates about the portrayal of female sexuality, challenging norms while facing backlash regarding its explicit themes.
  • Criticism, often framed as respectability politics, questions the acceptance of women of color in feminist spaces compared to their white counterparts.

Analysis of Corporate Feminism

  • The commodification of feminist ideals raises questions about the effectiveness of corporate feminist campaigns.
  • The authors emphasize the need to evaluate the impact of capitalism on feminist activism while considering ethical consumerism.

Findings of "A Corporation in Feminist Clothing"

  • Study participants recognized the potential for feminism to promote social change while benefiting corporations.
  • While acknowledging the limits of capitalism, there is support for ethical consumerism as a means of fostering social progress.

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Explore key concepts from WGS Unit 5, focusing on the forms of labor, gendered earning, and spending as represented in the essay by Hesse-Biber and Carter. This flashcard quiz will help reinforce your understanding of significant ideas related to women's work in American history.

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