Questions and Answers
What is one of the primary roles of the plasma membrane?
What is a consequence of decreased ATP in a cell?
Which organelle is primarily responsible for protein folding and biosynthesis?
Which of the following accurately describes necrosis?
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What typically happens to the cell during apoptosis?
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How does hypoxia affect cellular ATP levels?
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What defines malignancy in terms of cellular behavior?
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Which statement about the role of lysosomes is accurate?
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Which type of cellular adaptation involves an increase in cell size due to hormonal signaling?
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What is the mechanism behind apoptosis?
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Which of the following is an example of irreversible cell damage?
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The presence of which gene is essential for male sex determination during fetal development?
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What is the primary characteristic of autosomal recessive traits?
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Which statement about free radicals is true?
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What is the default sexual development pathway in the absence of the SRY gene?
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Which of the following conditions is linked to X-linked inheritance?
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What are secondary sex characteristics?
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Which process involves the defensive action of cells against pathogens and is a major regulator of cell function?
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What is the primary function of neutrophils in the immune response?
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Which type of hypersensitivity is associated with IgE antibodies?
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What role does the thymus play in the immune system?
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Which immunoglobulin is predominantly found at mucosal surfaces?
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Which of the following describes the innate immune response?
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What is the main consequence of opsonization in the immune process?
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What effect does histamine have on blood vessels?
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Which type of hypersensitivity involves immune complex mediated damage?
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What is the primary role of natural killer cells in the immune response?
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Which major cell type is responsible for the activation of T cells?
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What is the primary complication of atherosclerosis?
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Which factor is NOT considered a risk factor for atherosclerosis?
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What cellular changes occur during a myocardial infarction?
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Which condition is primarily associated with vegetation on heart valves?
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How do statins contribute to the management of atherosclerosis?
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What is the most common clinical manifestation of atherosclerosis once blockage exceeds 70%?
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Which of the following is NOT a typical factor contributing to venous insufficiency in varicose veins?
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What role do collagen and von Willebrand factor play in hemostasis?
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How does the Factor V Leiden mutation specifically affect blood clotting?
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Which diagnostic feature is commonly associated with infective endocarditis?
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In the context of cardiac physiology, what does the term 'afterload' refer to?
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Which of the following accurately describes the function of tissue plasminogen activator (tPA)?
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Which blood test measures extrinsic pathway clotting?
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What is the primary consequence of delayed type hypersensitivity in chronic inflammation?
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What effect does increased preload have on stroke volume, according to the Frank-Starling law?
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During which phase of the cardiac cycle is myocardial perfusion primarily occurring?
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What is considered a normal range for PTT measurements in seconds?
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What does the term 'ejection fraction' measure in cardiac physiology?
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What event marks the beginning and end of the diastolic phase of the cardiac cycle?
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Which component is considered the primary pacemaker of the heart?
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How does the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) primarily affect blood pressure?
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What is a key consequence of systolic heart failure?
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What is the hallmark symptom of left-sided heart failure?
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Which statement accurately describes diastolic heart failure?
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What effect does aldosterone have in the RAAS system?
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Which condition is caused by the failure of blood flow to the heart muscle?
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What characterizes valves affected by stenosis?
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What is a common compensatory mechanism for heart failure?
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Study Notes
General Pathology & Genetics
- Plasma membrane protects cellular DNA and facilitates the exchange of ions and molecules, important for tissue formation and cell communication.
- ATP generation occurs through glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation; decreased ATP leads to cellular swelling, increased calcium, decreased pH, and reduced protein synthesis.
- Hypoxia results in decreased ATP due to reduced oxygen supply.
- Organelles functions:
- Nucleus: Command center controlling DNA.
- Ribosomes: Build proteins and lipids.
- Endoplasmic Reticulum: Biosynthesis and protein folding.
- Golgi Apparatus: Distribution of packages outside the cell.
- Vacuoles: Food and water storage.
- Lysosomes: Waste breakdown.
- Mitochondria: Energy production.
- Malignancy defined as uncontrolled division of abnormal cells that invade tissues and potentially spread elsewhere.
- Necrosis involves uncontrolled cell death with cell enlargement and inflammation; apoptosis is programmed cell death, characterized by cell shrinkage and intact plasma membrane; dysregulated apoptosis relates to malignancies or autoimmune diseases.
- Cellular injury leads to loss of ATP, protein synthesis capacity, and genetic integrity, resulting in different responses: adaptation, degeneration, immune response activation, or malfunction.
- Ischemia causes reduced perfusion, nutrient deficiency, and waste accumulation.
- Free radicals destabilize cellular components, leading to cell damage, contributing to aging and inflammation.
- Cellular adaptations include hypertrophy (cell size increase), atrophy (cell size decrease), hyperplasia (cell number increase), metaplasia (tissue type change), and dysplasia (disordered growth).
- Reversible cell damage presents as swelling; irreversible damage leads to autophagy and loss of function.
- Fetal sexual differentiation occurs in four stages: chromosome determination, gonadal determination, genital differentiation, and secondary sex characteristics development, typically defaulting to female in absence of SRY gene.
- Epigenetics studies heritable traits that alter cell function without DNA sequence changes.
- Autosomal recessive traits require two copies of the recessive allele, commonly manifesting in childhood (e.g., sickle cell, cystic fibrosis).
- Autosomal dominant conditions can appear in adulthood, requiring only one dominant allele (e.g., Huntington's disease).
- X-linked disorders primarily affect males; examples include hemophilia and fragile X syndrome.
Immunity & Hemostasis
- First lines of defense include skin, mucous membranes, stomach acidity, and commensal microorganisms, not part of the immune system.
- Immune cells develop primarily in bone marrow, with the thymus responsible for developing T-lymphocytes.
- Innate immunity provides a rapid response without prior exposure while adaptive immunity is slower but provides a memory response for future encounters.
- Hematopoiesis produces stem cells that can differentiate into myeloid (red blood cells, platelets) or lymphoid (adaptive immune cells) pathways.
- Major immune cells:
- Neutrophils: Phagocytic and make up 70% of white blood cells.
- Monocytes: Phagocytic, leading to macrophages.
- Dendritic cells: Activate T cells.
- Natural Killer cells: Target and kill infected cells.
- Mast cells: Release histamine and cytokines, crucial for response to pathogens.
- Types of hypersensitivity reactions:
- Type I: Immediate allergic response, mediated by IgE.
- Type II: Antibody-mediated cytotoxicity (IgG, IgM).
- Type III: Immune complex-mediated inflammation (IgG, IgM).
- Type IV: Delayed type, involving T-cell responses.
- Inflammatory mediators are released from mast cells and newly synthesized from arachidonic acid.
- Immunoglobulins:
- IgA: Dominates in mucosal surfaces.
- IgE: Related to allergic reactions.
- IgD: Acts as an antigen receptor.
- IgG: Major antibody for long-term immunity.
- IgM: First antibody produced in response.
- Antibodies bridge antigens to immune components.
- Histamine increases vascular permeability and smooth muscle contraction; prostaglandins regulate platelet aggregation and vascular dynamics.
- Opsonization aids phagocytes in identifying pathogens for destruction.
- Chronic inflammation leads to tissue damage through persistent immune responses and bystander effects.
- Hemostasis process involves vasoconstriction, exposure of the basement membrane, and thrombus formation leading to a fibrin plug.
- Coagulation cascade has intrinsic and extrinsic pathways converging to factor X, leading to fibrin stabilization.
- Tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) facilitates fibrin degradation, important for diagnosing DVT/PEs.
- Anticoagulants like aspirin and heparin slow down the clotting process.
- PT, PTT, and INR are important for assessing coagulation, with normal PT around 11-13 seconds and PTT 25-35 seconds.
Cardiology & Atherosclerosis
- Contractility (inotropy) is the heart's ability to contract, directly linked to calcium levels and cardiac output.
- Collateral circulation provides alternative blood flow routes during blockages.
- Cardiac physiology terms:
- Stroke Volume: Amount of blood ejected during heart contraction.
- Preload: Ventricular stretch before contraction, linked to end-diastolic volume.
- Afterload: Resistance against which the heart must pump.
- Ejection Fraction: Proportion of blood ejected with each heartbeat.
- Cardiac Output: Volume of blood pumped per minute.
- Systole is the contraction phase; diastole is the relaxation phase for myocardial perfusion.
- Blood pressure regulation involves peripheral resistance and cardiac output modulated by hormones and blood volume.
- Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS) regulates blood pressure by modulating sodium and water retention in kidneys and affecting vascular tone.
- ACE inhibitors and ARBs reduce blood pressure by preventing angiotensin II effects.
- Heart failure stems from pump failure due to ischemic disease; compensatory mechanisms include dilation and hypertrophy.
- Left-sided heart failure is common, presenting as shortness of breath and pulmonary edema; right-sided failure causes systemic fluid retention.
- Systolic heart failure involves impaired contraction; diastolic heart failure results from poor relaxation.
- Valvular diseases differ in stenosis (narrowed opening) and regurgitation (backflow).
- Atherosclerosis leads to arterial plaque accumulation due to hypertension and endothelial dysfunction, potentially resulting in myocardial infarction.
- Risk factors for atherosclerosis include age, genetics, lifestyle, and inflammatory conditions.
- Statins help stabilize plaque and reduce inflammation in atherosclerosis.
- Myocardial infarction results in cell death and can lead to complications like infective endocarditis, characterized by vegetative growth on heart valves.
- Rheumatic heart disease follows strep infection, leading to valve damage and heart failure risks.
- Stasis dermatitis relates to varicose veins, with risk factors including prior thrombosis and sedentary lifestyles.
- Atrial fibrillation presents as irregular heart contractions with quivering atria.
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Description
This quiz covers key concepts from the first week of General Pathology and Genetics, focusing on the structure and function of the plasma membrane and the processes of ATP generation. Understand the roles of phospholipids and proteins in protecting cellular DNA and facilitating communication, along with the implications of ATP depletion on cellular processes.
