Volcano Formation and Activity

• Volcanoes are openings in Earth’s crust that emit lava, molten rocks, ash, and gases.
• They form when magma, molten rock, rises to the surface from the Earth's mantle or subduction zones.
• Converging plates are destructive, diverging plates are constructive, and hotspots are areas where magma melts the crust without plate movement.

Parts of a Volcano

• Cone: A steep hill or mountain built from layers of volcanic material.
• Sill: A flat rock formation created when magma cools inside a fissure.
• Secondary Vent: An additional opening formed when magma passes through a sill.
• Conduit: A pipe-like passage connecting the magma chamber to the surface.
• Lava Flow: Molten rock composed of crystals, volcanic glass, and gases.
• Crater: A bowl-shaped depression at the volcano's summit.
• Ash Cloud: A mass of tiny volcanic rock fragments, dust, and gases.
• Magma Chamber: Underground reservoir where magma is stored.

Volcanic Activity

• Active: Currently erupting or expected to erupt, with a magma chamber full of magma.
• Dormant: Has the possibility of erupting, with a blocked magma chamber that still contains magma.
• Extinct: No longer expected to erupt, with a dead magma chamber.

Shapes and Structures

• Shield Volcanoes: Have large, broad slopes and fluid lava (e.g., Mauna Loa, Hawaii).
• Composite/Stratovolcanoes: Symmetrical and steep, known for explosive eruptions (e.g., Mayon, Philippines).
• Lava Domes: Small with steep sides and viscous lava (e.g., Showa Shinzan, Japan).
• Cinder Cones: The smallest type, erupting cinders, ash, and rocks from a single vent (e.g., Sunset Crater, Arizona).

Explosiveness of Volcanoes

• Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) measures explosiveness.
• Shield Volcanoes: Characterized by effusive, non-explosive eruptions with lava flows.
• Composite Volcanoes: Experience both explosive and effusive eruptions.
• Cinder Cones: Known for purely explosive eruptions.
• Temperature and Pressure: Critical components in volcanic eruptions.

Volcanoes in the Phillipines

• The Philippines has 75 volcanoes, with 24 considered active.
• Taal Volcano, a caldera and lake type volcano in Batangas, had its most recent eruption on January 14, 2020.
• PHIVOLCS (Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology) monitors volcanoes in the Philippines.

Types of Volcanic Eruptions

• Icelandic: Produces runny lava that floods the surface through long cracks called fissures, which can extend 15 miles.
• Hawaiian: Numerous fissures result in large quantities of hot, thin, runny lava flows.
• Strombolian: Short, explosive eruptions shoot thick, pasty lava, steam, and gas, with little to no lava flow.
• Vulcanian: High, dark clouds of steam, ash, and gas in a cauliflower shape with a tree trunk-like base and thick, pasty lava.
• Stratovolcanoes: The most common type, with explosive eruptions combining steam, gas, ash, and lava, forming layers.
• Pelean: Violent explosions with collapsing summits release destructive pyroclastic flows.
• Plinian: The most powerful eruption type, featuring towering ash clouds up to 50,000 feet and dangerous pyroclastic flows.

Volcanic Eruption Materials

• Lava: Flowing molten rock
• Pyroclastic Material: Ejected fragments of lava, ash, and rock
• Volcanic Ash: Fine particles of fragmented volcanic rock carried by wind
• Volcanic Gases: Include water vapor, CO2, and SO2
• Magma: Molten rock, crystals, and dissolved gas, categorized as Basaltic, Andesitic, or Rhyolitic

Lava Flow Textures

• AA: Rough, rubbly, and spiky texture with a dense interior.
• Pahoehoe: Smooth and fluid flow with a billowy or ropy surface when solidified.
• Blocks: Pyroclastic fragments resulting from the splitting of viscous lava flow.

Pyroclastic Material Fragments

• Agglutinates: Scoria, cinders, and pumice partially fused as a cohesive mass.
• Volcanic Ash: Tiny lava particles that explode in the atmosphere.
• Bombs: Partially molten fragments blasted into the atmosphere.
• Cinders: Vesicular fragments with many cavities, approximately 1 cm in size.
• Lapili: Spheroid, teardrop, or dumbbell-shaped droplets of molten or semi-molten lava
• Pumice: Frothy, vesicular, pea-sized lumps of light-colored volcanic rock.
• Scoria: Vesicular volcanic rocks, commonly dark or reddish in color, with a mafic composition.

Viscosity of Lava

• High viscosity lava flows less easily with higher resistance, and gases expand slowly.
• Low viscosity lava flows more easily with less resistance.

Volcanic Energy

• Volcanic energy, also known as geothermal energy, is heat generated beneath the Earth's surface.

Primary Types of Volcanic Energy

• Hydrothermal Energy: Most common type, derived from hot water and steam trapped beneath the Earth's surface.
• Geopressured Energy: Combination of heat, pressure, and methane gas found deep within the Earth.
• Enhanced Geothermal Energy (EGS): Man-made solution to access geothermal energy in areas without natural reservoirs of water.
• Magma Energy: Uses heat from molten rock, least developed due to technological challenges.

Weather and Climate Factors

• Weather: Short-term conditions of the atmosphere including humidity, cloudiness, wind, temperature, air pressure, and precipitation.
• Climate: Long-term average pattern in a region (30+ years).

###Topography Mountains create a rain shadow effect.

• Windward side: The windward side receives moist air that rises, cools, and drops rain.
• Leeward side: The leeward side remains dry, often forming deserts.

###Geography Location impacts weather conditions.

• Coastal Areas: Coastal Areas have milder climates because water heats and cools slower than land.
• Inland Areas: Inland Areas experience extreme temperatures with hot summers and cold winters.
• Islands: Islands have moderate temperatures year-round.

Wind Patterns

• Prevailing Winds: Winds move warm and cold air across the planet.
• Trade Winds: Trade winds move warm air from the tropics.
• Westerlies: Westerlies affect temperature regions, bringing storms.
• Polar Easterlies: Polar Easterlies carry cold air from the poles.

Latitude and Sunlight

• Latitude and Angles of the Sun Ray create tropical, temperate, and polar zones.
• Near the Equator: Near the Equator is low latitude where sunlight is direct and warm.
• Near the Poles: Near the Poles is high latitude where sunlight is weaker, resulting in cold temperatures.
• The 23.5 degrees tilt of the Earth affects seasons and climates.

Temperature and Elevation

• High elevations: High elevations are colder experiencing a temperature drop of 6.5 degrees Celsius for every 1 km in height.

Surface Properties

• Different surfaces absorb and reflect heat differently.
• Dark Surfaces: Dark Surfaces like forests and oceans absorb more light, making it warmer.
• Light Surfaces: Light Surfaces like ice and sand reflect light, making it cooler.
• Urban heat island effect: Many buildings trap heat.

Continental and Maritime Effects

• Continental Effect: Land heats and cools quickly, leading to extreme temperatures far from oceans.
• Maritime Influence: Water bodies regulate temperature, heating and cooling slowly.
• Coastal Areas: Coastal Areas have moderate temperatures year-round.
• Western Europe: Western Europe has mild winters due to the Atlantic Ocean.

Air Pressure Conditions

• High Pressure: High Pressure indicates clear, dry weather.
• Low Pressure:Low Pressure indicates cloudy, rainy weather, often forming storms.

Sea and Land Breezes

• Sea Breeze (Daytime): Land heats up faster than water creating Air rises over land, pulling cool air from the sea.
• Land Breeze (Night Time): Land cools down faster. Air moves from land to sea.
• Cloud Cover: Cloud Cover at traps heat at night, keeping temperatures warm.
• Clouds Reflect: Clouds reflect sunlight during the day, keeping temperatures cool.
• Cloudy regions have less : Cloudy regions have less temperature variation compared to dry areas.

###Ocean Currents

• Warm Ocean Currents: Warm Ocean Currents warm coastal areas (e.g., Gulf Stream).
• Cold Ocean Currents: Cold Ocean Currents cool coastal regions (e.g., California).
• Distribute heat and influence : Ocean Currents Distribute heat and influence Global Climate

Climate Change Impacts

• Climate Change: Climate Change is a global phenomenon significantly impacting natural ecosystems.
• Climate Change is Driven by burning of Fossil Fuels, deforestation, industrial processes releasing greenhouse gas emissions.
• Climate Change Results in high temperature, altered precipitation patterns.

Effect on Various Ecosystems

• Forest Ecosystem: High temperature and changing precipitation patterns lead to droughts, wildfires, and pest outbreaks.
• Marine Ecosystems: Ocean warming and acidification disrupt marine life, coral reefs, and fisheries, causing coral bleaching.
• Polar Ecosystems: Melting ice caps and glaciers result in habitat loss for wildlife.
• Wetland Ecosystems: Changes in precipitation and sea level rise, altering water regimes and causing habitat loss.

###Actions to slow or reverse effects of Climate Change Mitigation: Includes reducing greenhouse gas emissions through renewable energy and reforestation.

• Adaptation Includes developing drought-resistant crops and protecting Vulnerable habitats.

Stars overview

• Stars: massive, glowing spheres of hot gas, primarily composed of hydrogen and helium.
• Stars Generate: Stars generate light and energy by nuclear fusion.

Star Brightness

• Brightness Indicates: Brightness Indicates its size.
• Larger stars have: Larger stars have more luminosity.
• Apparent Magnitude: How bright a star looks from Earth.
• Absolute Magnitude: The actual brightness at a standard distance (32.6 light-years).

Star Color

• Color of the star Indicates the star surface temperature by radiating specific colors
• Bluer Stars Indicates (Greater than25,000°C) and are the Hottest examples of blue stars are (e.g., Rigel).
• White Stars Indicates (~10,000°C Example Sirius).
• Yellow Stars Indicates (~5,500°C, Example the Sun).
• Orange Stars Indicates (~4000°C Examples Aldebaran).
• and Red Stars Indicates the coolest Stars

Explore volcano formation, types, and activity classification. Understand factors influencing eruption explosiveness and volcanic features. Test your knowledge of volcanology.