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Questions and Answers

What are the three main types of macronutrients?

Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats

Which of the following are considered trace elements?

  • Sodium (Na)
  • Calcium (Ca)
  • Potassium (K)
  • Iron (Fe) (correct)

    • Minerals are changed by digestion or metabolism.

    False

    What is the primary role of minerals in the body?

    <p>Minerals play roles in enzyme activity, structural support, acid-base balance, nerve and muscle function, and unique functions like heme production and thyroid hormone synthesis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between macro minerals and micro minerals?

    <p>Macro minerals, also known as major minerals, are needed in larger amounts than micro minerals, also known as trace minerals, which are needed in smaller amounts.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a major mineral?

    <p>Calcium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the percentage of calcium found in the skeleton of animals?

    <p>99%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a function of calcium?

    <p>Hormone production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are some factors that can inhibit calcium absorption?

    <p>Lack of stomach acid, vitamin D deficiency, high phosphorus intake, high fiber diet, phytates in seeds, nuts, and grains, and oxalates in greens can all hinder calcium absorption.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the normal plasma concentration of calcium?

    <p>8-12 mg/dl</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone acts to decrease plasma calcium levels?

    <p>Calcitonin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following conditions is associated with calcium deficiency in growing animals?

    <p>Rickets</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of calcium in bone health?

    <p>Calcium, along with phosphorus, is crucial for bone formation. Bones act as a reservoir for calcium, maintaining blood calcium homeostasis when needed.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Around age 40, bone formation exceeds bone breakdown.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a recommendation for preventing osteoporosis?

    <p>Increase sodium intake</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main component of bone that contains calcium?

    <p>Hydroxyapatite</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of phosphorus in the body?

    <p>Energy metabolism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Phosphorus deficiency can lead to rickets or osteomalacia.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main source of phosphorus in grain?

    <p>Phytate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone plays a role in regulating phosphorus levels in the body?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are some of the functions of phosphorus in the body?

    <p>Phosphorus plays roles in phospholipid formation, being a component of DNA and RNA, aiding in protein synthesis, supporting energy metabolism, maintaining blood pH, and contributing to hydroxyapatite formation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is associated with high blood sodium?

    <p>Increased risk of heart disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Sodium is added to livestock diets but not typically to human diets.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the main functions of sodium and chloride in the body?

    <p>They act as electrolytes, maintaining fluid balance, and sodium specifically supports nerve function and muscle contraction. Chloride is involved in HCl production and the removal of carbon dioxide.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the condition where the serum calcium level remains high over an extended period?

    <p>Hypercalcemia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the disease associated with cobalt deficiency in plants and soils?

    <p>Wasting disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cobalt deficiency is often more severe in areas where grasses or legumes are more common.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of iodine in the body?

    <p>Iodine is an essential component of thyroid hormones, which play significant roles in regulating body temperature, metabolic rate, reproduction, and growth.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Iodine deficiency is the sole cause of goiter.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the more severe iodine deficiency disorder in babies?

    <p>Cretinism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of selenium in the body?

    <p>Selenium acts as a component of glutathione peroxidase, an antioxidant enzyme vital for protecting cells from oxidative damage.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a common sign of selenium deficiency?

    <p>Goiter</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Selenium supplementation is safe and can be taken in high doses without any risk.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the condition associated with chromium deficiency that can lead to elevated blood glucose?

    <p>Hyperglycemia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of manganese in the body?

    <p>Manganese acts as a cofactor for metalloenzymes, playing roles in gluconeogenesis, bone formation, energy metabolism, and as a cofactor for superoxide dismutase, an antioxidant enzyme.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Manganese deficiency is a common health concern.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of molybdenum in the body?

    <p>Molybdenum is important for redox reactions and acts as a cofactor for several enzymes involved in the metabolism of sulfur-containing amino acids and DNA and RNA.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Molybdenum deficiency is a common concern in humans.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are some of the factors that can influence zinc bioavailability?

    <p>Phytates, iron, calcium, animal sources, and acidic substances can impact zinc absorption and bioavailability.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the skin condition that can occur due to zinc deficiency, even with adequate dietary zinc?

    <p>Acrodermatitis Enteropathica</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are some of the functions of zinc in the body?

    <p>Zinc serves as a cofactor for RNA synthesis, stabilizes proteins involved in regulating gene expression (including zinc fingers), has antioxidant properties, stabilizes cell membranes, and plays a role in supporting immune function.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Fluoride is an essential nutrient for human health.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Fluoride deficiency is a common health concern.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are some of the potential consequences of fluoride toxicity?

    <p>Fluoride toxicity can lead to gastrointestinal upset, excessive saliva production, watery eyes, heart problems, coma, dental fluorosis, and skeletal fluorosis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the major trace mineral found in vitamin B12?

    <p>Cobalt</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cobalt deficiency is more common in areas with sandy soils.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Feeding cobalt to animals is the most effective treatment for cobalt deficiency.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the major function of copper in the body?

    <p>Copper is essential for the normal absorption, transport, and mobilization of iron and hemoglobin synthesis. It's also an integral component of several enzymes, including cytochrome oxidase.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Copper deficiency is a common health issue.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following conditions is NOT associated with copper deficiency?

    <p>Rickets</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the protein involved in copper transport in the body?

    <p>Ceruloplasmin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Bioinorganic Chemistry

    • Calcium is crucial for bone matrix, nerve function, blood clotting, and muscle contraction.
    • Cellular metabolism relies on calcium.

    Macronutrients

    • Macronutrients are needed in large amounts for body fuel, growth, and maintenance.
    • These include carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.

    Micronutrients

    • Micronutrients, vitamins, and minerals, are needed in small quantities for normal metabolism and well-being.
    • Minerals comprise microminerals (trace elements) and macrominerals.
    • Example trace elements include Fe, Cu, F, Zn, I, Se, Mn, Mo, Cr, Co and B.
    • Example macrominerals include Na, Mg, K, Ca, P, S and Cl.
    • Vitamins include A, B, C, D, E, and K.

    Minerals

    • Minerals are inorganic elemental atoms essential for nutrition.
    • They are not changed during digestion or metabolism.
    • Minerals assist in metabolic processes (cofactors) and have structural functions (e.g., Ca, P in bone; S in keratin).
    • They maintain acid-base and water balance.
    • They support nerve and muscle function (Ca, Na, K).

    Major Minerals

    • Macro minerals are needed in amounts over 100 mg/day.
    • These include calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, chloride, and potassium.

    Bioavailability & Regulation of Major Minerals

    • Bioavailability refers to the percentage of an administered drug that enters the circulation.
    • Factors influencing bioavailability include genetics, aging, nutritional status, and other food compounds.
    • Minerals are absorbed in the small and large intestines.
    • Kidneys and small intestines regulate the bioavailability of minerals.

    Classification

    • Macro minerals are present in body tissues in concentrations above 50 mg/kg (50 ppm).
    • Trace minerals are present in body tissues in concentrations below 50 mg/kg (50 ppm).
    • Example trace minerals include: Chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, molybdenum, copper, zinc, fluoride, iodine, selenium, silicon, tin, arsenic, and nickel.

    Nutritionally Important Minerals

    • Macro minerals (g/kg) and Trace minerals (mg/kg). Specific amounts are listed for each element in the table.

    Minerals in Foods

    • Minerals are found in all food groups, with animal products being a more reliable source from plants.
    • Substances in foods can decrease mineral absorption (bioavailability).
    • Oxalates prevent calcium absorption in spinach.
    • Phytate reduces phosphorus absorption in plants.

    Factors Affecting Requirements

    • Physiological state and level of product are factors.
    • Interactions with other minerals and tissue storage are factors.
    • Inorganic and organic forms affect mineral requirements. (Example for selenium - sodium selenite, sodium selenate, selenomethionine)

    Deficiencies and Excesses

    • Most minerals have optimal ranges.
    • Deficiency symptoms result from falling below the optimal range.
    • Exposure to amounts higher than optimal levels results in toxicity symptoms
    • Mineral content of soil influences plant (read: food) mineral content.

    Requirements and Toxicities

    • Specific requirement levels and toxic levels are given for various elements (copper, cobalt, iodine, selenium) and species (cattle, swine).

    Calcium

    • Calcium is the most abundant mineral in animal tissues.
    • 99% of calcium is found in the skeleton.
    • Calcium plays a vital role in bone structure, nerve function, blood clotting, muscle contraction, and cellular metabolism.

    Food Sources

    • Milk and dairy products have high amounts of calcium and high bioavailability (vitamin D fortified).

    • Green leafy vegetables (poor absorption).

    • Fish (with bones).

    • Fortified juice/cereal.

    • Calcium and phosphorus are required for bone formation and other non-skeletal functions; a 1:1 to 2:1 dietary ratio is optimal.

    Calcium Absorption

    • Calcium absorption is dependent on vitamin D and calcium-binding protein in intestinal cells.

    • Absorption varies depending on need (pregnancy, growth, lactation)

    • Bioavailability is reduced by factors such as phytates in grains and oxalates found in plant foods (spinach).

    • Wheat bran and low estrogen levels also affect calcium absorption (post-menopausal women).

    • Phytates (phytic acid) interfere with the absorption of nutrients in plants (found in grains, legumes, nuts, and seeds).

    Calcium Regulation

    • Calcium levels in blood are constantly regulated.
    • A range of 8-12 mg/dL in plasma represents a normal concentration in blood.
    • The hormones vitamin D3, parathyroid hormone (PTH), and calcitonin regulate calcium levels.

    Responses to Low Blood Calcium

    • Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is released to stimulate the conversion of vitamin D to calcitrol, increasing blood calcium levels.
    • Calcium absorption by small intestines and bone resorption increases blood calcium.

    Regulation of Calcium Homeostasis

    • Calcitriol and parathyroid hormone (PTH) together increase calcium absorption and bone breakdown, and decrease calcium excretion.
    • Parathyroid hormone (PTH) stimulates the conversion of 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 to 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (calcitriol) to increase blood calcium levels.
    • This process is part of the regulation of calcium homeostasis.

    Calcium Deficiencies

    • Rickets, osteomalacia (osteoporosis), and milk fever (parturient paresis) are calcium deficiency diseases in growing animals, adults, and lactating animals, respectively.

    Calcium and Bone Health

    • Bone growth is greatest during "linear growth" (peaks at around age 30).
    • Calcium in bones acts as a reservoir for use as required by the body.
    • Bone health is supported by blood calcium homeostasis.

    Calcium and Osteoporosis

    • Bone break down exceeds bone formation after age 40
    • Aim for higher bone mass at this time
    • Women often lose 50% of bone mass at or before age 65.

    Prevention

    • Maintaining adequate calcium and vitamin D intake is important for bone health.
    • Many recommend supplements.
    • Performing weight-bearing exercises is crucial.
    • Estrogen supplements can help (post-menopausal women).

    Structural Functions of Calcium

    • Osteoblasts are cells that form bone, while osteoclasts break down older bone.
    • Hydroxyapatite is a large crystal-like molecule in bone.

    Regulatory Functions of Calcium

    • Calcium stimulates blood clotting, muscle contractions, and nerve transmissions
    • Calcium plays a vital role in vision and blood glucose regulation.
    • Calcium also participates in cell differentiation and energy metabolism.

    Focus on Foods: Milk, Calcium, and Chronic Disease

    • Milk consumption is associated with a reduced risk of chronic illnesses like degenerative diseases, heart disease, and possibly reduces blood pressure and cancer.

    Calcium Toxicity

    • Calcium deposition in soft tissues.
    • Impaired kidney function due to high calcium amounts.
    • Interference with the absorption of other nutrients (iron and zinc)

    Abnormal Serum Calcium Levels

    • Serum calcium levels can also fall in pathological conditions (hypocalcemia).
    • This happens in conditions such as hypoparathyroidism, rickets, osteomalacia, steatorrhoea, chronic renal failure, and nephrotic syndrome.
    • Also, serum calcium levels can rise in certain cases (hypercalcemia), such as hyperparathyroidism, hypervitaminosis D, bone cancer, multiple myeloma, or leukaemia.

    Phosphorus

    • Phosphorus is similar to calcium in its functions.
    • Phosphorus plays a critical role in energy metabolism, including ATP production, sugar phosphates, and phosphoproteins.
    • Phosphorus is found in all foods.
    • Deficiencies in phosphorus can relate to rickets and osteomalacia, pica, (eating strange things such as wood or bones), low fertility, and poor milk production.

    Phosphorus (P)

    • Phosphorus is vital for cell membranes, walls, and body function.
    • Phosphorus plays a role in energy metabolism.

    Metabolism & Regulation of Phosphorus

    • Phosphorus absorption occurs in the small intestine with vitamin D-dependent active transport and simple diffusion.
    • Concentrations are regulated by calcitriol, PTH, and calcitonin.

    Functions of Phosphorus

    • Phosphorus is a component in phospholipids, DNA, and RNA, and ATP.
    • Phosphorus plays a role in protein synthesis and energy metabolism.
    • Phosphorus is important for maintaining blood pH and forming hydroxyapatite.

    Phosphorus Toxicity

    • Mineralization of soft tissues results from phosphorus toxicity.

    Sodium

    • Sodium is crucial for acid-base and osmotic balance, essential for nerve transmission and transportation of sugars and amino acids.

    Sodium and Health

    • High blood sodium is often related to high blood pressure and risk of heart disease, but high sodium levels in blood are not always solely due to high dietary sodium intake.
    • Genetics, along with other factors, are involved.

    Sodium and Chloride

    • Sodium and chloride are frequently found together in foods, they function as ionic bonds to form salt.
    • These ingredients are added to foods in processing, cooking, and food creation.

    Did You Know...

    • Salt-free foods contain less than 5 mg sodium/serving.
    • Very low salt foods contain less than 35 mg sodium/serving.
    • Low-salt foods contain less than 140 mg sodium/serving.

    Dietary Sources & Bioavailability of Sodium

    • Table salt, monosodium glutamate, and highly processed foods and condiments are sources.
    • Amounts are found in many meats, dairy, poultry, and seafood.
    • Bioavailability can be reduced by malabsorption.

    Regulation of Sodium & Chloride

    • Sodium is absorbed first, followed by chloride in the small intestine.
    • Sodium is absorbed with glucose and is actively absorbed in the colon for water absorption.

    Regulation of Sodium in Blood

    • Low aldosterone levels favor increased sodium excretion, while high aldosterone levels favor decreased sodium excretion.
    • The renin-angiotensin system stimulates aldosterone secretion, which then returns blood sodium levels to normal.

    Functions of Sodium & Chloride

    • Electrolyte and fluid balance.
    • Sodium is needed for nerve function and muscle contraction.
    • Chloride is vital for HCl production, carbon dioxide removal, and immune function.

    Sodium & Chloride Deficiencies

    • Infants and children with diarrhea, vomiting, and athletes with strenuous sports show symptoms such as nausea, dizziness, muscle cramps and coma from sodium and chloride deficiencies.

    Overconsumption of Sodium Chloride

    • Increased blood pressure is correlated with high sodium chloride intake.
    • Elderly and African Americans are more susceptible.
    • People with hypertension, diabetes, and chronic kidney disease are also more susceptible.

    Focus on Food - Salt: Is It Really So Bad?

    • Salt sensitivity has genetic components.
    • Exercise and responsiveness of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system also affect salt sensitivity.

    Chlorine

    • Chlorine is vital for acid-base and osmotic regulation, and is a key component of HCl and chloride salts in gastric secretions.
    • Low chlorine levels can lead to metabolic alkalosis (increased bicarbonate).
    • Low chlorine may lead to growth retardation.

    Sulfur

    • Sulfur is a component of amino acids (cystine, cysteine, and methionine), which are essential for bioactive and structural proteins
    • Wool contains roughly 4% sulfur.
    • Chondroitin sulfate is a component of cartilage.
    • Sulfur deficiency is linked to protein deficiency.

    Magnesium

    • Magnesium is associated with calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P).
    • Magnesium is a key component of 70% of the Mg in the skeleton
    • Magnesium activates enzymes such as pyruvate dehydrogenase.

    Magnesium (Mg): Dietary Sources & Bioavailability

    • Magnesium is found in green leafy vegetables, seafood, legumes, nuts, dairy products, chocolate, brown rice, and entire grains.
    • Bioavailability is influenced by calcium and phosphorus.

    Metabolism & Regulation of Magnesium

    • Magnesium stabilizes enzymes, neutralizes negatively charged ions, and plays a role in carbohydrate metabolism, as well as DNA and RNA metabolism and nerve and muscle function.

    Magnesium Deficiency & Toxicity

    • Magnesium deficiency is observed in alcoholics, and leads to nerve and muscle function abnormalities.
    • Potential increased risk of CVD and type 2 diabetes in cases of deficiencies.
    • High dose magnesium supplementation may lead to intestinal distress and alterations in heart rate.

    Potassium

    • Potassium is vital for osmotic and acid-base balance.
    • Potassium is a key intracellular fluid cation.
    • Potassium is important for nerve and muscle excitability, and is a cofactor for several carbohydrate metabolic reactions.
    • In ruminant animals, potassium is a crucial component of sweat and increases requirements for this during heat stress.
    • Potassium is typically high in forages.

    Potassium (K): Dietary Sources & Bioavailability

    • Potassium is commonly found in legumes, potatoes, seafood, dairy, meat, and fruits/vegetables.
    • Potassium bioavailability is quite high.

    Regulation & Functions of Potassium

    • Potassium is absorbed through the small intestine and colon.
    • Blood potassium levels are regulated by the kidneys (with the aid of aldosterone).
    • Potassium is vital for electrolyte balance, fluid balance, and supports muscle and nerve function, and energy metabolism.

    Potassium Deficiency & Toxicity

    • Potassium deficiency stems from conditions like diarrhea and vomiting, along with diuretic use
    • Symptoms of deficiency include muscle weakness, constipation, irritability, confusion, impaired insulin resistance, irregular heart function, and difficulty breathing.
    • Potassium toxicity from supplementation is rare.

    The Trace Minerals: An Overview

    • Trace minerals are inorganic atoms or molecules needed in very small amounts (less than 100 mg/day).

    Bioavailability & Regulation of Trace Minerals

    • Trace mineral bioavailability can be affected by genetics, nutritional status, nutrient interactions, and aging.
    • They are absorbed in the small intestine and circulated in the blood.
    • Deficiencies and toxicities of trace minerals are rare.

    Functions of Trace Minerals

    • Trace minerals act as cofactors for metalloenzymes.
    • Trace minerals are components of nonenzymatic molecules
    • They are structural components of mineralized tissues.

    Iron

    • Iron is the most common nutrient deficiency worldwide.
    • Iron is essential for oxygen transport via hemoglobin (essential for ATP production), and is a vital component of many enzymes.
    • Iron is critical to immune function and brain development.

    Iron in the Body

    • 70% of iron is functional in enzymes and other molecules, 80% of this is in red blood cells.
    • 30% of iron is stored in depots or transport proteins.
    • Iron absorption, transport, storage, and loss are regulated.

    Iron Absorption

    • Iron homeostasis is primarily regulated (1-50%).
    • When the body needs more iron, it increases the amount of transferrin and/or decreases ferritin production.
    • Iron can be stored in ferritin.

    Iron Absorption, Transport, & Storage

    • Iron absorption happens through the brush border and basolateral membranes.
    • Chemical modification is not needed for hemin absorption
    • Nonheme iron needs to be reduced to ferrous form.
    • Ferritin is the main storage form and hemosiderin for long-term storage.

    Effect of Iron Status on Iron Absorption

    • Iron deficiency increases transport protein and decreases ferritin production.
    • Adequate or excess iron decrease transport protein and increase ferritin production.

    Iron Circulation, Uptake Into Cells, & Storage

    • Transferrin delivers iron to cells.
    • Cells have transferrin receptors to take up iron.
    • Iron storage compounds include ferritin (main storage form) and hemosiderin (long-term storage form).

    Absorption, cont.

    • Iron from animal sources is much better absorbed than iron from plant sources.
    • Phytates, polyphenols, calcium, and zinc decrease iron absorption.

    Iron Deficiency Anemia

    • Iron deficiency anemia is a major public health concern in many parts of the world.
    • Infants, children, and pregnant women are at high risk.
    • Symptoms of deficiency include low hemoglobin concentration, small red blood cell size, cognitive problems, poor growth, and decreased exercise tolerance.

    Iron (Fe): Dietary Sources

    • Heme iron: is bound to a heme group and is found in shellfish, beef, poultry, and organ meats.
    • Nonheme iron: is found in green leafy vegetables, mushrooms, legumes, and enriched grains.

    Bioavailability of Iron

    • Iron bioavailability is influenced by the form (heme or nonheme), iron status of the body, and presence of or lack of other dietary compounds.

    Enhancers of Nonheme Iron Bioavailability

    • Vitamin C and stomach acid convert ferric iron to ferrous iron, enhancing absorption.
    • The "meat factor" increases the absorption of nonheme iron.

    Inhibitors of Nonheme Iron Bioavailability

    • Chelators, like phytates in vegetables, grains, and seeds, and polyphenols in some vegetables, tea, and coffee, inhibit nonheme iron absorption.

    Functions of Iron

    • Iron is a key player in oxygen transport via hemoglobin, supports iron storage in myoglobin, and plays a role in cellular energy metabolism.

    Oxygen Transport: Hemoglobin

    • Hemoglobin is the most abundant protein in red blood cells.
    • It has four protein subunits and contains four iron-containing heme groups.
    • Hemoglobin delivers oxygen to cells and picks up carbon dioxide.

    Iron Reservoir: Myoglobin

    • Myoglobin is found in muscle cells.
    • It contains a heme group and a protein subunit that releases oxygen to cells for ATP production and muscle contraction.

    Cellular Energy Metabolism

    • Cytochromes are heme-containing complexes that function in the electron transport chain.
    • Iron, as a cofactor, plays a crucial role in the electron transport chain, citric acid cycle, and gluconeogenesis.

    Other Roles of Iron

    • Iron is part of the cytochrome P450 enzymes along with other cofactors associated with antioxidant enzymes
    • The protection includes DNA, cell membranes, and proteins
    • Iron is also a cofactor involved in DNA formation

    Iron Deficiency

    • Iron deficiency is the most prevalent nutritional deficiency in the world.
    • Infants, children, pregnant women, and those who are vulnerable and/or have a history of inadequate iron intake or bleeding are at high risk.
    • Pica is a symptom of iron deficiency.

    Mild Iron Deficiency

    • Symptoms of mild deficiency include fatigue, impaired physical performance, behavioral abnormalities, compromised intellectual development in children, body temperature regulation problems, and influence on the immune system.

    Severe Iron Deficiency (Iron-Deficiency Anemia)

    • Microcytic hypochromic anemia is a result of inadequate iron intake. – characterized by small, pale red blood cells.
    • It compromises the body's ability to produce sufficient heme, which impairs the delivery of oxygen and ATP synthesis.

    Focus on Clinical Applications: Measuring Iron Status

    • Serum ferritin, total iron-binding capacity, serum transferrin saturation, hemoglobin concentration, and hematocrit are used to evaluate iron status.

    Basics of Iron Supplementation

    • Ferrous iron is best absorbed and commonly available.
    • Ferrous fumarate, ferrous sulfate, and ferrous gluconate supplementation are examples of ferrous iron supplements.
    • Ferric iron supplementation is also available.

    Iron Toxicity

    • Iron is toxic if consumed in excessive amounts.
    • Supplementation with iron is the most common cause of iron toxicity.
    • Symptoms of iron toxicity include vomiting, diarrhea, constipation, and black stools.
    • Excess iron can be deposited in the liver, heart, and other muscles.

    Special Recommendations for Vegetarians & Endurance Athletes

    • Vegetarians need 80% more iron than non-vegetarians.
    • Endurance athletes often have an increased iron requirement given the elevated excretion through blood, feces, and urine.

    Copper (Cu): Dietary Sources & Bioavailability

    • Copper is found in organ meats, shellfish, whole grain products, mushrooms, nuts, and legumes.
    • Copper bioavailability is decreased with antacids and iron.

    Absorption, Metabolism, & Regulation of Copper

    • Copper is absorbed in the small intestine & stomach; it is influenced by copper status, regulated by ceruloplasmin, incorporated into bile (for excretion in feces).

    Functions of Copper

    • Copper is a cofactor for many metalloenzymes in redox reactions, involved in ATP production, cytochrome c oxidase, iron metabolism, and neural function.
    • Copper has antioxidant properties aided by superoxide dismutase and supports connective tissue synthesis.

    Copper Deficiency & Toxicity

    • Copper deficiency affects hospitalized patients and preterm infants and is linked with antacid use.
    • Symptoms include defective connective tissue, anemia, and neurological problems.
    • Copper toxicity is rare, though.

    Copper

    • Copper is essential for normal iron absorption, transport, and hemoglobin synthesis
    • Copper acts as an integral component of many enzymes, particularly cytochrome oxidase.
    • Copper is stored primarily in the liver and other tissues.

    Copper Deficiency

    • Anemia (low red blood cell count).
    • Discoloration in wool/hair.
    • Wool crimp loss.
    • Bone disorders, central nervous lesions, and poor muscle coordination can be observed in copper deficiency.

    Induced Copper Deficiency vs. Copper Toxicity

    • Copper deficiency can be induced if molybdenum (Mo) levels are high or sulfur (S) levels are high.
    • Copper toxicity can occur when copper levels are normal or high, though Mo and S levels in the diet are low.
    • These issues are observed more readily in sheep and other similar animals, than in cattle or pigs.

    Iodine

    • Iodine is an essential component of thyroid hormones (T3 and T4).
    • Iodine supports regulation of body temperature, basal metabolic rate, reproduction, and growth.
    • Iodine is absorbed in the body and excess iodine is excreted in the urine.

    Dietary Sources of Iodine

    • Iodine is found in seafood, milk/dairy products, and iodized salt.

    Iodine Deficiency

    • Goiter is an enlarged thyroid gland often noted in iodine deficient areas.
    • Cretinism results from severe iodine deficiency during pregnancy, which often results in stunted growth and neurological deficits (deafness, muteness, and mental retardation).

    Iodine Deficiency Disorders

    • The iodine deficiency disorders are goiter (less severe) and cretinism (more serious).

    Absorption, Metabolism, & Regulation of Iodine

    • Iodine is absorbed in the small intestine and stomach, and in the thyroid gland where hormone production takes place
    • Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) regulates iodine uptake in the thyroid gland.

    Functions of Iodine

    • Iodine is a component of the hormones T3 (triiodothyronine) and T4 (thyroxine), which regulate energy metabolism, growth, and development.

    Focus on Food: Iodine Deficiency & Iodine Fortification of Salt

    • Iodine deficiency in the US was widespread in the 1920s.
    • Iodized salt was included in campaigns to correct the issue.
    • Current public health campaigns aim to eliminate iodine deficiency worldwide.

    Iodine Toxicity

    • Excess iodine intake can lead to hypothyroidism and hyperthyrodism (overproduction of hormones) and goiter formation.

    Selenium

    • Selenium is incorporated into selenomethionine, which helps form selenoproteins, which are stored in muscles.
    • Selenium is maintained through excretion in the urine.

    Functions of Selenium

    • Selenoproteins are components of glutathione peroxidase, an enzyme that catalyzes the removal of hydrogen peroxide.
    • Selenium supports the conversion of T4 to T3, which aids neutrophil function and reduces the severity of mastitis.

    Selenium

    • Selenium protects cells from autooxidative damage and is an important antioxidant.
    • Selenium deficiency can lead to white muscle disease in lambs and calves, skeletal and cardiac myopathies, and exudative diathesis (hemorrhagic disease) in chicks.

    Selenium Content of Soils

    • Soil selenium content can vary widely; some soils have low to very low amounts, while other soils contain adequate to high amounts of selenium.

    Selenium Toxicity

    • Selenium toxicity can occur when there are relatively high levels of Mo and/or S.
    • Toxicity can cause a condition known as blind staggers or alkali disease.
    • The minimum and maximum tolerable levels of selenium are closely controlled.
    • Se intake amounts are closely controlled.
    • The FDA has regulations for suitable inorganic selenium (Na selenite and Na selenate) amounts.

    Selenium Deficiency & Toxicity

    • Selenium deficiency can cause Keshan disease.
    • Symptoms of selenium toxicity include garlic-like breath odor, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, brittleness of teeth and fingernails.

    Chromium (Cr): Dietary Sources, Bioavailability, & Regulation

    • Chromium is found in whole grains, fruits/vegetables, processed meats, beer, and wine.
    • Chromium bioavailability is influenced by vitamin C, acidic medications, and antacids.
    • Chromium is transported in blood to the liver.
    • Excess chromium is excreted in the urine and feces.

    Functions of Chromium

    • Chromium regulates insulin, supports growth and development, increases lean mass, and reduces fat mass in animals.
    • It can be used as an ergogenic aid, particularly chromium picolinate.

    Chromium Deficiency & Toxicity

    • Chromium deficiency can cause elevated blood glucose, decreased insulin sensitivity, and weight loss in patients under hospital care.
    • Chromium toxicity is rare, and is primarily associated with industrially released chromium.

    Manganese (Mn): Dietary Sources & Regulation

    • Manganese is found in whole grains, pineapples, nuts, legumes, dark leafy vegetables, and also water.
    • The absorption rate is less than 10%.
    • Excess manganese is incorporated into bile, excreted through the feces.

    Functions of Manganese

    • Manganese is a cofactor for metalloenzymes involved in gluconeogenesis (formation of glucose), bone formation, and energy metabolism.
    • It plays a crucial role as a cofactor in superoxide dismutase.

    Manganese Deficiency & Toxicity

    • Manganese deficiency is rare, but it can be associated with scaly skin, poor bone formation, and slowed growth.
    • Manganese toxicity is also rare; it could be observed in individuals exposed to mining, liver disease, or high water levels.

    Molybdenum (Mo): Dietary Sources

    • Molybdenum is found in legumes, grains, and nuts.
    • It is absorbed in the intestine and travels to the liver via the blood.

    Functions of Molybdenum

    • Molybdenum participates in redox reactions and is a key cofactor for many enzymes.
    • It plays an essential role in metabolism of sulfur-containing amino acids and in DNA and RNA metabolism.
    • Molybdenum is involved in drug detoxification in the liver.

    Molybdenum Deficiency & Toxicity

    • Molybdenum deficiency is rare, although it can disrupt reproduction in animals.
    • No known effects from molybdenum toxicity have been reported in humans.

    Zinc (Zn): Dietary Sources & Bioavailability

    • Zinc is found in a variety of foods; bioavailability is affected by phytates, iron, calcium, animal sources, and acidic substances.

    Absorption, Metabolism, & Regulation of Zinc

    • Zinc requires proteins for transport into enterocytes (metallothionine) and binding within cells.
    • Excess zinc is excreted in feces.

    Acrodermatitis Enteropathica

    • Acrodermatitis enteropathica is a condition associated with zinc deficiency, even when dietary zinc levels are adequate.
    • It's often observed in infants and is associated with growth failure, red/scaly skin, diarrhea, and delayed sexual maturation.

    Functions of Zinc

    • Zinc acts as a cofactor in RNA synthesis and stabilizes proteins regulating gene expression (zinc fingers).
    • Zinc has antioxidant properties and stabilizes cell membranes.

    Zinc Deficiency & Toxicity

    • Zinc deficiency results in reduced appetite, increased morbidity, decreased growth, skin irritation, diarrhea, and delayed sexual maturation.
    • Zinc supplements can cause poor immune function and depressed HDL levels; and can lead to nausea, vomiting and loss of appetite.

    Fluoride

    • Fluoride is not considered an essential nutrient for the body.
    • 99% of fluoride is found in bones and teeth.
    • It is used to promote bone and tooth mineralization (calcium and phosphate).
    • Topical application decreases bacteria in the mouth, which reduces cavity formation.

    Fluoride (F-): Dietary Sources, Bioavailability, & Regulation

    • Fluoride is found in drinking water (often as fluoride supplements), potatoes, tea, legumes, and fish with bones, toothpaste. It is standardized to 1-2 parts per million with American Dental Association guidelines.
    • Fluoride is absorbed in the small intestine, circulates in the blood, and is deposited in the liver and then the teeth and bone. The excess fluoride is excreted through the urine.

    Functions of Fluoride

    • Fluoride is part of bone and tooth matrix, stimulates the formation of new bone, and decreases bacterial activity in the mouth.

    Fluoride Deficiency & Toxicity

    • Fluoride deficiency shows no known effects in people.
    • Fluoride toxicity can lead to GI upset, excess saliva production, watery eyes, potential heart problems, coma, dental fluorosis, and skeletal fluorosis.

    Cobalt

    • Cobalt was found associated with wasting diseases, it became recognized since the 1930s
    • Cobalt deficiency in plants and soils relates to the problem
    • Cobalt is a component of vitamin B12 (important for glucose, energy creation and synthesis).

    Vitamin B12

    • Vitamin B12 contains the mineral cobalt.
    • Co and B12 are essential coenzymes (proteins that play a major role in biological reactions).

    Cobalt Deficient Areas of the US

    • Certain regions in the US exhibited cobalt deficiency problems in plants and livestock, affecting animals.

    Cobalt and Vitamin B12

    • Vitamin B12 injections were effective in curing cobalt-deficient animal conditions. The microbial synthesis of Vitamin B12 is a significant factor.

    Functions of Cobalt and Vitamin B12

    • Cobalt and vitamin B12 are essential coenzymes for propionate metabolism (methylmalonyl CoA to succinyl CoA), DNA synthesis, and bacterial methionine synthesis.

    Other Trace Minerals

    • Nickel, aluminum, silicon, vanadium, arsenic, and boron are among other rare trace minerals.

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