Podcast
Questions and Answers
What are the two types of cellular reproduction?
What are the two types of cellular reproduction?
Asexual and sexual reproduction
How many chromosomes do somatic cells have?
How many chromosomes do somatic cells have?
- 23
- 46 (correct)
- 69
- 92
What is the name given to a pair of chromosomes with the same size and genes?
What is the name given to a pair of chromosomes with the same size and genes?
- Homologous chromosomes (correct)
- Sister chromatids
- Centromere
- Tetrad
What process occurs during prophase I of meiosis that leads to genetic variation?
What process occurs during prophase I of meiosis that leads to genetic variation?
Meiosis II is very similar to mitosis.
Meiosis II is very similar to mitosis.
What are the four key sources of genetic variation?
What are the four key sources of genetic variation?
What is nondisjunction?
What is nondisjunction?
A duplication is a type of chromosomal alteration where a segment is lost.
A duplication is a type of chromosomal alteration where a segment is lost.
What are the two versions of a gene called?
What are the two versions of a gene called?
What term describes an organism that has two copies of the same allele?
What term describes an organism that has two copies of the same allele?
What are the two laws of inheritance that Mendel is credited with?
What are the two laws of inheritance that Mendel is credited with?
Which type of dominance occurs when both alleles are expressed, but each to a lesser degree?
Which type of dominance occurs when both alleles are expressed, but each to a lesser degree?
What genetic condition occurs when one gene affects multiple traits?
What genetic condition occurs when one gene affects multiple traits?
The genetic code is the same for all living things.
The genetic code is the same for all living things.
What are the three steps of transcription?
What are the three steps of transcription?
Where does transcription take place?
Where does transcription take place?
RNA polymerase adds nucleotides to the 5' end of the growing RNA molecule.
RNA polymerase adds nucleotides to the 5' end of the growing RNA molecule.
What is the function of a spliceosome?
What is the function of a spliceosome?
What is the process called that converts mRNA into a protein?
What is the process called that converts mRNA into a protein?
What is the role of tRNA during translation?
What is the role of tRNA during translation?
What are the three sites on a ribosome where tRNA molecules bind?
What are the three sites on a ribosome where tRNA molecules bind?
The termination of translation occurs when the ribosome encounters a stop codon on the mRNA.
The termination of translation occurs when the ribosome encounters a stop codon on the mRNA.
What are the four major elements of life?
What are the four major elements of life?
What type of bond results from the unequal sharing of electrons between atoms?
What type of bond results from the unequal sharing of electrons between atoms?
Hydrogen bonds can only form between polar molecules.
Hydrogen bonds can only form between polar molecules.
What type of bond is formed by the complete transfer of an electron from one atom to another?
What type of bond is formed by the complete transfer of an electron from one atom to another?
What is the main function of the nucleus?
What is the main function of the nucleus?
The cytosol is part of the cytoplasm.
The cytosol is part of the cytoplasm.
What are the two main processes that link monomers together to form polymers?
What are the two main processes that link monomers together to form polymers?
Cellulose is a polysaccharide that is digestible to humans.
Cellulose is a polysaccharide that is digestible to humans.
What are the three main types of lipids?
What are the three main types of lipids?
What are the four primary levels of protein structure?
What are the four primary levels of protein structure?
What are the two main types of nucleic acids?
What are the two main types of nucleic acids?
Which organelle is responsible for protein synthesis?
Which organelle is responsible for protein synthesis?
Mutations can be temporary.
Mutations can be temporary.
What are the two main types of membrane transport?
What are the two main types of membrane transport?
What type of transport uses energy to move molecules against their concentration gradient?
What type of transport uses energy to move molecules against their concentration gradient?
What term describes a plant cell that is swollen due to the uptake of water?
What term describes a plant cell that is swollen due to the uptake of water?
Volume increases faster than surface area as a cell grows.
Volume increases faster than surface area as a cell grows.
What are the two main components of the fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane?
What are the two main components of the fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane?
What type of molecules can easily diffuse across the cell membrane without the assistance of proteins?
What type of molecules can easily diffuse across the cell membrane without the assistance of proteins?
The sodium-potassium pump is a passive transport mechanism.
The sodium-potassium pump is a passive transport mechanism.
What is the primary function of metabolic pathways?
What is the primary function of metabolic pathways?
What type of metabolic pathway breaks down complex molecules and releases energy?
What type of metabolic pathway breaks down complex molecules and releases energy?
What type of reaction requires energy input and builds complex molecules?
What type of reaction requires energy input and builds complex molecules?
What do enzymes do?
What do enzymes do?
A reaction that happens with an enzyme can happen without the enzyme, but it might take much longer.
A reaction that happens with an enzyme can happen without the enzyme, but it might take much longer.
What type of bulk transport moves substances, such as waste products, out of the cell?
What type of bulk transport moves substances, such as waste products, out of the cell?
What is the chemical equation for cellular respiration?
What is the chemical equation for cellular respiration?
Cellular respiration is an anabolic process.
Cellular respiration is an anabolic process.
In what organelle does cellular respiration take place?
In what organelle does cellular respiration take place?
What are the four main stages of cellular respiration?
What are the four main stages of cellular respiration?
What is the name of the process that generates ATP using the energy from the electron transport chain?
What is the name of the process that generates ATP using the energy from the electron transport chain?
What is the name of the process that breaks down glucose into pyruvate?
What is the name of the process that breaks down glucose into pyruvate?
Anaerobic respiration requires oxygen.
Anaerobic respiration requires oxygen.
What are the two main types of anaerobic respiration?
What are the two main types of anaerobic respiration?
What is the chemical equation for photosynthesis?
What is the chemical equation for photosynthesis?
What type of process is photosynthesis?
What type of process is photosynthesis?
In photosynthesis, water is reduced, and carbon dioxide is oxidized.
In photosynthesis, water is reduced, and carbon dioxide is oxidized.
What are the two main stages of photosynthesis?
What are the two main stages of photosynthesis?
Where do the light reactions of photosynthesis take place?
Where do the light reactions of photosynthesis take place?
The ETC in photosynthesis uses energy from the electron transport chain to pump hydrogen ions from the stroma into the thylakoid space.
The ETC in photosynthesis uses energy from the electron transport chain to pump hydrogen ions from the stroma into the thylakoid space.
What is the name of the enzyme that catalyzes the fixation of carbon dioxide in the Calvin cycle?
What is the name of the enzyme that catalyzes the fixation of carbon dioxide in the Calvin cycle?
What is the name of the process that occurs when oxygen is incorrectly used as a substrate by RuBisCo in the Calvin cycle?
What is the name of the process that occurs when oxygen is incorrectly used as a substrate by RuBisCo in the Calvin cycle?
Flashcards
Asexual Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction
A single parent produces offspring that are genetically identical to itself.
Sexual Reproduction
Sexual Reproduction
Two parents contribute genetic material to produce offspring that are genetically unique.
Somatic Cells
Somatic Cells
Normal body cells with a full set of chromosomes (diploid).
Gametes
Gametes
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Karyotype
Karyotype
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Autosome
Autosome
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Sex Chromosome
Sex Chromosome
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Homologous Chromosomes
Homologous Chromosomes
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Sister Chromatids
Sister Chromatids
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Tetrad
Tetrad
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Meiosis I
Meiosis I
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Crossing Over
Crossing Over
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Chiasmata
Chiasmata
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Independent Assortment
Independent Assortment
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Recombinant Chromosomes
Recombinant Chromosomes
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Random Fertilization
Random Fertilization
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Nondisjunction
Nondisjunction
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Aneuploidy
Aneuploidy
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Trisomy
Trisomy
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Monosomy
Monosomy
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Polyploidy
Polyploidy
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Deletion
Deletion
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Duplication
Duplication
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Inversion
Inversion
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Translocation
Translocation
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Alleles
Alleles
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Traits
Traits
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Homozygote
Homozygote
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Heterozygote
Heterozygote
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Law of Segregation
Law of Segregation
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Law of Independent Assortment
Law of Independent Assortment
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Complete Dominance
Complete Dominance
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Incomplete Dominance
Incomplete Dominance
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Codominance
Codominance
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Pleiotropy
Pleiotropy
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Polygenic Inheritance
Polygenic Inheritance
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Epistasis
Epistasis
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Sex-Linked Inheritance
Sex-Linked Inheritance
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Barr Body
Barr Body
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Genetic Disease
Genetic Disease
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Transcription
Transcription
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Transcription Unit
Transcription Unit
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RNA Polymerase
RNA Polymerase
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Promoter
Promoter
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TATA Box
TATA Box
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Transcription Initiation Complex
Transcription Initiation Complex
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Elongation
Elongation
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Termination
Termination
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5' Cap
5' Cap
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3' Poly-A Tail
3' Poly-A Tail
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RNA Splicing
RNA Splicing
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Intron
Intron
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Exon
Exon
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Alternative RNA Splicing
Alternative RNA Splicing
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Translation
Translation
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Codon
Codon
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Anticodon
Anticodon
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tRNA
tRNA
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Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetase
Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetase
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Ribosome
Ribosome
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rRNA
rRNA
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Initiation
Initiation
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Elongation
Elongation
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Termination
Termination
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Release Factor
Release Factor
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Study Notes
Final Review
- This PowerPoint presentation summarizes major concepts for the final exam.
- It should be used as a reference, but not the sole source of study.
Asexual vs Sexual Reproduction
- Asexual reproduction results in a daughter cell identical to the parent (clone).
- Sexual reproduction involves two parents, creating a genetically unique daughter cell.
Gametes vs Somatic Cells (in Humans)
- Somatic cells are normal body cells, containing 46 chromosomes (2n).
- Gametes are reproductive cells, containing 23 chromosomes (n).
Karyotype
- A karyotype displays 23 pairs of chromosomes (total of 46).
- Pairs 1-22 are autosomes, and pair 23 is sex-linked.
- A tetrad is a pair of homologous chromosomes consisting of four sister chromatids.
- Homologous chromosomes have the same size and genes (loci).
- Sister chromatids are identical, while homologous chromosomes are parallel.
Meiosis I
- Prophase I: Homologous chromosomes pair, undergo crossing over, and form chiasmata.
- Metaphase I: Homologous chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate, exhibiting independent assortment.
- Anaphase I: Homologous chromosomes separate.
- Telophase I and cytokinesis I: Two haploid daughter cells are formed, each with sister chromatids in each chromosome.
Meiosis II
- Prophase II: Spindles form and attach.
- Metaphase II: Sister chromatids line up at the metaphase plate. Chromatids are not identical due to crossing over.
- Anaphase II: Sister chromatids separate.
- Telophase II and Cytokinesis II: Four genetically distinct haploid daughter cells are created.
Mitosis vs Meiosis Summary
- Mitosis occurs in diploid and haploid cells, results in two genetically identical diploid cells, and has one division.
- Meiosis occurs in diploid cells, creates four genetically distinct haploid cells, and has two divisions.
Genetic Variation
- Independent assortment: Homologous pairs assort independently during metaphase I, resulting in random combinations of maternal and paternal chromosomes in daughter cells.
- Crossing over: Non-sister chromatids exchange segments of DNA during prophase I, creating recombinant chromosomes.
- Random fertilization: Any sperm can fuse with any ovum with equal probability, creating unique combinations of alleles.
Nondisjunction
- Nondisjunction is the error in chromosome separation during meiosis I or II.
- It can lead to aneuploidy, where a gamete has either an extra (trisomy) or missing (monosomy) chromosome.
Chromosome Alterations
- Deletion: Removal of a chromosomal segment.
- Duplication: Repetition of a chromosomal segment.
- Inversion: Reversal of a segment within a chromosome.
- Translocation: Movement of a segment from one chromosome to a nonhomologous chromosome.
Inheritance Vocabulary
- Alleles: Different versions of a gene.
- Traits: Different versions of a character.
- Homozygote: An organism with two identical alleles for a particular gene.
- Heterozygote: An organism with two different alleles for a particular gene.
Mendel's Laws
- Law of segregation: Two alleles segregate during gamete formation, ending up in different gametes.
- Law of independent assortment: Each pair of alleles separates independently of other pairs during gamete formation.
Dominance
- Complete dominance: The dominant allele is completely expressed if present.
- Incomplete dominance: Both alleles are expressed, but to a lesser degree, resulting in an intermediate phenotype.
- Codominance: Both alleles are completely expressed, resulting in both phenotypes being observed.
Other Concepts
- Pleiotropy: A single gene affecting multiple traits.
- Polygenic inheritance: Multiple genes affecting a single trait.
- Epistasis: Multiple genes affecting each other's expression.
- Sex-linked inheritance: Genes located on sex chromosomes (X and Y). Females have two X chromosomes, while males have one X and one Y. A disorder on the X chromosome will be expressed more in males than females.
- Genetic diseases: Conditions caused by genetic mutations.
Gene Expression
- Proteins link genotype and phenotype.
- The genetic code is similar in all living things.
- Genes can be transferred between different species
Transcription
- Transcription unit: DNA segment copied to RNA.
- RNA polymerase: Enzyme copying DNA to pre-mRNA.
- Promoter: DNA sequence starting transcription, often includes a TATA box.
- No primer required during transcription.
- Template strand is 3' --> 5'
- RNA is made 5' ---->3'
Initiation of Transcription
- RNA polymerase binds to the promoter, helped by transcription factors.
- The combined complex is called the transcription initiation complex.
Elongation of Transcription
- RNA polymerase adds nucleotides only to the 3' end of the growing RNA molecule.
- No lagging strand during transcription.
Termination of Transcription
- RNA polymerase reads a termination signal on the DNA, releasing the RNA molecule.
- RNA is processed, including a 5' cap and 3' poly-A tail and splicing to remove introns.
Translation
- Matches amino acids to codons.
- tRNA carries amino acids to the ribosome, matching their anticodons to codons on mRNA.
- mRNA codons are determined based on DNA sequence.
- Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase attaches amino acids to tRNA.
Translation in the Ribosome
- rRNA makes up the ribosomal subunits.
- Initiation: Small subunit binds to mRNA, searching for start codon. tRNA with methionine (Met) binds to the start codon. Large subunit joins, creating the translation initiation complex.
- Elongation: tRNA brings amino acids to ribosome according to mRNA codons, building the growing polypeptide chain.
- Termination: Stop codon on mRNA signals termination. A release factor binds, causing the polypeptide chain to release.
Water Properties
- High specific heat: Water resists changes in temperature.
- Ice insulates: Solid water is less dense than liquid water.
- Cohesion and adhesion: Water molecules stick together and to other surfaces.
- Surface tension: Water's resistance to external force.
Isomers
- Structural isomers: Different bonding arrangements of the same atoms.
- Cis-trans isomers: Different spatial arrangements of atoms around a double bond.
- Enantiomers: Non-superimposable mirror images of each other.
Cell Structures
- Nucleus: Holds DNA, center of cell, contains nucleolus and nuclear pores.
- Cytosol/Cytoplasm: Cytosol is the liquid. Cytoplasm includes the cytosol and all organelles.
Monomer/Polymer Relationships
- Dehydration synthesis: Joining monomers to form polymers.
- Hydrolysis: Breaking polymers down into monomers.
Carbohydrates
- Monomer: Monosaccharides (e.g., glucose).
- Polymer: Polysaccharides (e.g., starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin) - cellulose is not digestible to humans.
Lipids
- Non-polar
- No monomers
- Three types: Glycerides, steroids, phospholipids.
- Saturated fats (solid at room temperature) versus unsaturated fats (liquid at room temperature)
Proteins
- Monomer: Amino acids.
- Polymer: Polypeptide chains.
- Four levels of protein structure: Primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.
Nucleic Acids
- Monomers: Nucleotides (sugar + phosphate + base).
- Polymers: DNA and RNA, both held together by covalent bonds; DNA is a double helix held together by hydrogen bonds.
Organelles
- Ribosomes: Sites of protein synthesis.
- Smooth ER: Synthesizes lipids and detoxifies substances.
- Rough ER: Synthesizes proteins.
- Lysosomes: Contain digestive enzymes for waste breakdown and cell apoptosis.
Mutations
- Substitution mutation: A single base change.
- Nonsense mutation: A change that creates a stop codon.
- Missense mutation: A change that results in a different amino acid.
- Frameshift mutation: Deletion or insertion of a base pair, changing the reading frame of the gene.
- Temporary mutations: Can be fixed quickly
Membrane Transport
- Passive transport: Facilitated and simple diffusion.
- Active transport: Pumps, cotransporters.
Osmosis
- The movement of water across a semipermeable membrane.
- Hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic solutions and their effect on plant cells (turgid, flaccid, plasmolyzed).
Surface Area to Volume Ratio
- Cells divide to maintain a suitable surface area to volume ratio for efficient exchange of materials with the environment.
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