USSR Control over Eastern Europe

USSR Control over Eastern Europe

• USSR control of Eastern Europe from 1948 to approximately 1989 involved political motivations and various consequences.
• Opposition to Soviet control emerged in Hungary and Czechoslovakia.
• The Berlin Wall was built in 1961.
• The Solidarity movement in Poland grew, which led to a decline in Soviet influence.
• Gorbachev's leadership led to the collapse of Soviet control over Eastern Europe.

Motivations & Consequences of Control

• The USSR sustained significant damage during World War II with 27,000,000 casualties and widespread destruction.
• Joseph Stalin aimed to rebuild and expand the country after the war.
• The defeat of Nazi Germany created a power vacuum in Eastern Europe.
• The concept of Lebensraum, which involved Germany's eastward expansion, influenced Stalin.
• Stalin sought to reclaim territories that were once part of the Russian Empire.
• The Soviet Army's push against the Germans in 1943 served as a pretext to station troops in Eastern Europe post-1945.
• Stalin assured Allies of free elections at the Yalta Conference but established satellite states through intimidation and propaganda.
• The Eastern Bloc was considered vital for the USSR's safety due to distrust of the West fuelled by Truman's atomic bomb secrecy.
• The Truman Doctrine and Marshall Aid were seen as attempts to contain communism, leading Stalin to view Eastern Europe as a buffer zone.
• Life in the Eastern Bloc was challenging, with communist economies operating under Five Year Plans.
• Satellite states provided valuable products to the USSR, but Five Year targets were often unattainable.
• Poor treatment and pay of workers by the USSR led to discontent and health issues.
• Eastern Europeans lacked human rights to protest or vote.
• Hungary, East Berlin, Czechoslovakia, and Poland protested or sought reforms, only to be met with violent repression by the USSR.
• The USSR's control was unsustainable in the long term due to internal and external pressures, with its end leading to the dissolution of the USSR.
• Causes for the USSR's control included the defeat of Nazi Germany, reclaiming parts of the old Russian Empire, post-WWII rebuilding, and mistrust of the USA.
• Consequences included a lack of human rights, poor economies, low standards of living, and violent repression to maintain control.

Opposition in Hungary

• After Stalin's death in March 1953 and a subsequent power struggle, Khrushchev became the General Secretary of the USSR in 1956.
• This marked a perceived change in the USSR's leadership style.
• At the 20th Party Congress in 1956, Khrushchev denounced Stalin's leadership, accusing him in his "Secret Speech" of abusing power.
• Khrushchev advocated for "peaceful co-existence" with the West and began "De-Stalinisation," releasing political prisoners, lifting censorship, and increasing consumer goods.
• However, he couldn't implement too much capitalism or democracy, which was limited by the communist dictatorship.
• Hungary's communist leader, Mátyás Rákosi, exercised harsh control, aiming to make Hungary "a country of iron and steel" despite its lack of iron ore.
• Fuel shortages and poor harvests further exacerbated issues. Hungary transitioned to another unpopular leader named Erno Gero.
• In October 1956, Budapest saw violent protests where students peacefully demonstrated for more political and personal freedom.
• Hungary's secret police arrested protestors, using tear gas to suppress the march, and police shot at students attempting to free those arrested.
• Soviet troops restored order in Budapest.
• Khrushchev decided to change Hungary's leadership and replaced Rakosi with Ernö Gerö.
• Imre Nagy headed a new government allowed by the USSR, and Khrushchev believed Nagy could resolve unrest because the people liked him.
• The Soviet Union considered it would only lead to limited reforms.
• Nagy's reforms included ending the communist one-party state, including non-communist politicians in the government, releasing political prisoners, reorganizing the government, and withdrawing Soviet troops.
• Nagy persuaded Khrushchev to remove Soviet troops from Budapest.
• On November 1, 1956, Nagy announced Hungary would withdraw from the Warsaw Pact.

Reaction to Hungarian Uprising

• Khrushchev may have believed Hungarian troops were needed to suppress uprisings in other satellite states. The satellite satets may have wanted to follow Hungary's leaving of the Warsaw Pact.
• The USSR relied on the collective security of pro-Communist states, and it did not want to protect the USSR if they did not have to.
• A loss of Satellite states was a concern for Khrushchev and their adherence to communistic ideas.
• Yugoslavia, under Tito, broke away from the USSR's influence in 1948 and grew closer to the West by accepting military support from NATO.
• Tito explored alternative versions of Communism, undermining the USSR's model, and Khrushchev did not want other satellite states to form alliances with Yugoslavia.
• Khrushchev sent an invasion force of 1,000 tanks to Hungary on November 4, 1956.
• Nagy and his supporters fought the invasion force, described as the Hungarian Uprising, contacted the West, and requested military assistance, but was denied.
• The Soviet invasion force attacked brutally, killing approximately 30,000 Hungarians.
• Khrushchev established a stronger communist government in Hungary under János Kádár and promised Nagy safety.
• Nagy and members of his government had been seeking refugee in the Yugoslav embassy.
• Soviet spies kidnapped Nagy after he left the embassy, and in July 1958, the Soviet government announced Nagy's execution.
• Causes of the uprising included fuel shortages, poor harvests, discontent with the lack of freedom, and Imre Nagy's reforms.
• Consequences included Khrushchev's tighter control over the Eastern Bloc, the USA's reputation as a protector of freedom being ruined, and worsening relations between the USA and the Soviet Union.

Opposition in Czechoslovakia - Prague Spring

• Brezhnev ultimately suppressed reform in Czechoslovakia.
• Brezhnev became the Second Secretary in July 1964, positioning him as Khrushchev's successor and led a coalition to become the First Secretary of the USSR in October 1964.
• Brezhnev thought Khrushchev had weakened the USSR.
• Important dicisions were discussed and made as a group, unlike under Khrushchev's more solitary rule
• Brezhnev had an authoritarian style of rule, like Stalin.
• Brezhnev changed leadership style and would not allow reform.
• Life in Czechoslovakia was difficult because people had limited freedoms and low living standards and were unhappy with the Czech government.
• In 1968, Alexander Dubcek was elected as First Secretary.
• Dubcek was responsible for leading the Czech government, which was approved by the USSR.
• Dubcek was a devout Communist.
• In April 1968, the Czech government released a series of reforms known as the Prague Spring.
• The multi-party elections were considered for the future, with no date set.
• There was a relaxation of censorship and more power to local governments.
• In April 1968, reforms gave citizens freedom to criticise the government without punishment, reduced government control on Czech industry, gave more power to trade unions, increased trade with the West, and promoted opportunities for Czech citizens to travel abroad.
• Brezhnev demanded Dubcek reverse the Prague Spring reforms, however Dubcek ignored his request
• Dubcek invited Ceausescu and Tito, the leaders of Romania and Yugoslavia, for talks which appeared to be an aggressive action against the USSR.
• Brezhnev believed action was necessary against Dubcek and the Prague Spring reforms because he could not allow Czechoslovakia to unify with non-Soviet Communist states.
• Czechoslovakia remained under Soviet control for the next 20 years and Husak remained loyal to the USSR.
• The Czech government punished any signs of dissent following the events of the Prague spring.
• On August 28, 1968, 500,000 Soviet troops invaded Czechoslovakia.
• These troops were supported by members of the Warsaw Pact.
• A student called Jan Palach burned himself to death in protest in central Prague, following which Dubcek was arrested and sent to Moscow where the Soviet Union ordered him to reverse the Prague Spring reforms.
• Causes of the Soviet invasion were living standards, the influence of Romania and Yugoslavia, and 'socialism with a human face.'
• Consequences of the invasion were the suppression of the Czech public, the appointment of Husak, no military action by the USA, and the creation of the Brezhnev Doctrine to reinforce that the satellite states should not attempt to reform.

The Brezhnev Doctrine

• The actions of one communist country affect the reputation of all communist countries.
• The Warsaw Pact makes it the responsibility of all communist countries to protect against a single country's actions and stop one country from damaging communism as a political idea.
• A reform in one country would damage communism.
• Communist countries should be prepared to fight against reforms, instead of allowing reform to spread.

Berlin Wall

• The formal division between East and West Germany led to the FRG giving access to more rights and freedom.
• The GDR had many issues including food shortages.
• Soviet policies did not improve East Germany's economy.
• Many East Berliners lived in poor-quality houses and lacked freedom of speech or protest.
• The secret police ("Stasi") monitored dissent, subjecting East Germans to torture and imprisonment.
• By the 1950s, many East Germans wanted to live under Soviet rule.
• East Berlin contstruction workers protested against the East German government which spread to multiple towns accross the GDR.
• The USSR suppressed the revolt on June 18th 1953.
• East Germans could freely travel to West Berlin before the construction of the Berlin Wall, giving fleeing East Germans an area to escape to.
• Fleeing East Germans created a refugee crisis, leading to West Germany struggling to house its new citizens and East Germany having a significant decline in high-skilled citizens.

The Refugee Crisis in Berlin

• The number of people escaping the GDR through East Berlin became a rising issue by 1950s and by 1958, three million Germans had left the GDR, which was a sixth of the population.
• In October 1958, Khrushchev demanded that the West recognise the GDR because many Western countries refused to acknowledge a divided Germany that had formerly been split into two nations.
• The USA hoped that Germany would be one country, and denied.
• On October 27th 1958, Khrushchev issued his ultimatum to the West with a six month timescale.
• The ultimatum demanded demilitarisation and the remova of Western troops from Berlin as well as it becoming a free city. If these demands were not met, control of all Berlin's transport routes was to be handed over to the GDR.
• Asking for a "free city" showed the USSR as peaceful, and if the USA refused it would make them look power-hungry.
• Khrushchev intended to incorporate the whole of Berlin into the USSR and give control of Berlin's transport network to the GDR, which was planned for political tactic to ensure the USA acknowledge that the GDR was an independent country.
• By 1958, three million Germans had left the GDR.
• A series of peace talks occurred from 1959-1961 but were unsuccessful.
• US-Soviet relations had worsened due to Kennedy's presidency and the U-2 spy plane incident.
• Krushchev built Berlin wall to stop mass migration from the GDR from the East.
• Over 40,000 East Germans escaped the GDR through Berlin in one day in August,

The Wall

• The events in Berlin required Khrushchev to act quickly and the failure of the Vienna Summit in June created fear among East Germans.
• The leader of the GDR (Walter Ulbricht) urged Khrushchev to act quickly to prevent more East Germans from leaving.
• On August 12th 1961, East German government placed barbed wire between East and West Berlin under nightfall, stationing guards near the divide.
• The Berlin Wall later developed from barbed wire to a concrete structure.

Impact of the Wall

• The construction of the Berlin Wall had devastating consequences.
• Many became stuck in Berlin, separated and trapped.
• Families were divided and many died.
• Border guards shot Fechter when escaping to West Berlin.
• Fechter fell into no-man's-land where neither guard did not help or treat his injuries.
• Fechter died 45 minutes after he was shot, later East German border guards removed him.
• The incident damaged the GDR's reputation.
• Negative outcomes included the USSR valued the Wests opinion less, the possibility of uniting Germany faded and the USSR were repressive.
• Positive outcomes included West Berlin remained independent and the stalemate and division meant less chance of nuclar war.
• During Kenndy's visit to West Berlin in June 1963, thousands of West Berliners gathered, chanted and paced flowers.
• Kennedy made known as 'Ich bin ein Berliner' speech.

Solidarity in Poland & the Decline of Soviet Influence

• Reasons why Poland resisted Communist rule included Nationalism, communism, Polish October, religion, Russia and Wladyslaw Gomulka.
• The late 1970s saw Poland's economy was struggling due to old-fashioned industry and a lack of funding and the Polish government was falling.

Who were Solidarity?

• Workers' wages were much higher than the workers' productivity.
• Prices of goods were increased, workers' wages were decreased and led to strikes at created in Solidarnosc.
• Solidarnosc was developed into a protest movement.
• On August 30th 1980, the governent agreed Solidarnosc's demands for no infuence from the communist party, to legaslise strike, pay matching goods rises, ending sensorship the allowing catholic church on radio and letting workers elect managers.
• The movemnt had three million members and called Solidarnosc and Walesa did not authorise violent protests.
• It had widespread support in the West in Poland.

Martial Law in Poland

• In Febuary 1981, Jaruzelski became prime minister with plans to bring solidarity to end
• On December 13th 1981, the actions were that Jaruzelski claimed to have evidence of coup aganist the governemtn leading to 1000s in arrests.
• Factors that helped the governemtn martial law was because solidarity was fracture and Brezhnev needed to conform to the Warsaw Pact.
• The number of people that supported and the desires openly for better the standard of living.

Gorbachev & Soviet Influance

• Gorbachev became leader after Brezhnev and had reform with democratic ideas.
• Histarians estimate that the country was spending 10-20% on the military leading to economic and social issues, bad living and the the country began to fall in 1970.
• When Gorbachev's leadership was established, USSA was econmic and it and would save Communist to increase happeniness citizen states
• Gorbechev introduced perestroika or restructiing and less spending and introducing capitalist elments and trade between contries, plus less control.
• Restrictions were reduced that for censorship and speech.
• the citizens can could crticise and there was was the media control and took the reparession and allow position
• Gorbachev came tackle corruption a series summits with other states

End of Communism in Eastern Europe

• Devount Communists blamed Gorbachev which weakeded the USSR for losing Baltic States of Estonia, .
• After Gorbachev had gone there was some problems led to the decline communism the Eastern Bloc.
• The USA had the collapse communimsm and supported gorups to overthrown governement

Collapse of Communist Governments

• Poland: Widespread strikes began in 1988 plus gree agreed free elctions leading to Solidarnosc senate seats.
• Germany: Demontrated and new travel policy where East Berlin cross to West and The Berlin Wall
• Czechoslovakia: Governement supressing protester and Prague in resgned .

Events in the USSR

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• Gorbachev could Ukraine and influence . The was