US History: Period 7 (1890-1945)

Contextualizing Period 7 (1890-1945)

• From 1890 to 1945, the United States transitioned from horse-and-buggy transportation to automobiles and airplanes
• The U.S. participated in two World Wars, endured the Great Depression, and emerged as a global leader
• This era witnessed substantial changes in American lifestyles and the government's role

Economic Growth and Global Leadership

• By 1890, the U.S. had become the world's leading industrial power, surpassing Great Britain, and further solidified this position through World War II
• A robust economy supported the expanding role of the U.S. in international affairs
• In 1945, the U.S. emerged as the world's foremost political and military power
• Industrialization, urbanization, and immigration were key factors shaping events during this period

Economic Shifts and Reform Periods

• The U.S. economy continued to evolve from rural and agricultural to urban and industrial
• Large corporations grew, and economic cycles of booms and busts continued, culminating in the Great Depression of the 1930s
• Economic changes, along with political and social issues, led to two significant reform periods: the Progressive Era and the New Deal
• Progressives addressed economic instability by creating the Federal Reserve to regulate banking and the business cycle

Political and Social Reforms

• Election practices were reformed to combat political corruption, including the direct election of U.S. senators
• A constitutional amendment granted women the right to vote, marking a milestone in the fight for gender equality
• The New Deal was introduced in response to the economic collapse and mass unemployment of the Great Depression
• It created a limited welfare state to address unemployment, reduce poverty among the elderly, and assist those experiencing economic hardships
• Laws regulating banks and the stock market were passed, guaranteeing a minimum wage, creating Social Security, and protecting workers in labor unions
• American liberalism emerged due to the government's increasing role in addressing problems caused by industrialization

Cultural Conflicts and Social Tensions

• Popular culture expanded significantly with the introduction of mass media like radio and motion pictures
• Conflicts arose over morals, education, religion, and science, with some churches opposing the teaching of evolution in schools
• Debates over national identity and federal restrictions on immigration emerged due to immigration and internal migration
• The Ku Klux Klan resurged, attacking African Americans, Roman Catholics, Jews, and immigrants

Shifts in Foreign Relations

• Debates over imperialism and two world wars renewed discussions about America's global role
• The acquisition of new territories after the Spanish-American War raised questions about the U.S.'s commitment to freedom and self-government
• During World War I, disagreements arose over the extent of American involvement and the best way to ensure national security
• Congress and voters rejected membership in the League of Nations after World War I

Emergence as a World Leader

• World War II thrust the United States into a leadership role due to its economic, political, and military strength
• The U.S. embraced collective security in 1945 and played a key role in creating the United Nations
• Post-war decisions, such as the alliance with Western Europe and commitment to anti-communism, shaped American foreign policy for the rest of the century

Analyzing the Context

• A historical context for the increased role of the federal government in the U.S. economy during 1890-1945 was the need to address economic instability and social issues, leading to reforms by the Progressives and the New Deal
• A historical context for the increased role of the United States in world affairs during 1890-1945 was its emergence as a leading industrial, political, and military power, particularly after World War II, prompting it to embrace collective security and global leadership

Landmark Events (1890–1950)

• 1898: The Spanish-American War begins
• 1901: Theodore Roosevelt becomes president
• 1917: The United States enters World War I
• 1919: The Versailles Treaty concludes World War I
• 1920: Women win the right to vote
• 1924: Congress passes a restrictive Immigration Quota Law
• 1929: The Great Depression begins.
• 1933: Franklin Roosevelt is elected president and begins implementing the New Deal.
• 1941: The United States enters World War II
• 1945: The United States drops two atomic bombs on Japan

Imperialism Debates (Post-1790s)

• After the 1790s, U.S. foreign policy focused on westward expansion, protecting U.S. interests abroad, and limiting foreign influences in the Americas
• After the Civil War, a booming industrial economy led to increased U.S. interest in overseas trade, establishing bases and territories in the Caribbean Sea and across the Pacific Ocean
• After 1890, a debate grew over whether the U.S. should compete for territories with imperialist nations or stay true to its anti-colonial traditions
• William Jennings Bryan opposed conquest, stating it was against traditions, interests, and the form of the U.S. government

Expansion After the Civil War

• William H. Seward, as Secretary of State (1861–1869), was influential in expanding U.S. territory
• Seward helped prevent Great Britain and France from siding with the Confederacy during the Civil War
• He led the drive to annex Midway Island, gained rights to build a canal in Nicaragua, and purchased Alaska
• Seward failed to convince Congress to annex Hawaii and the Danish West Indies

Purchase of Alaska

• Russia and Great Britain both initially claimed Alaska
• Russia established a small colony for seal hunting but sought buyers due to economic burden and the threat of a British takeover
• In 1867, Congress agreed to buy Alaska for $7.2 million due to Seward's advocacy and appreciation for Russian support during the Civil War
• For many years, Americans saw no value in Alaska, calling it "Seward’s Folly" or "Seward’s Icebox"

Hawaiian Islands

• American missionaries and entrepreneurs settled in Hawaii in the mid-1800s
• In 1870, Ulysses S. Grant sought control of Pearl Harbor and new trade treaties with Hawaii
• A treaty in 1875 gave the U.S. exclusive rights to Hawaiian sugar
• In 1893, American settlers aided in overthrowing Queen Liliuokalani, petitioning for annexation by the U.S. to avoid high import tariffs on sugar
• President Grover Cleveland opposed imperialism and blocked efforts to annex Hawaii

Era of "New Imperialism"

• During the 19th century, industrialized nations conquered and divided Africa, Asia, and the Pacific Islands
• Britain, France, Germany, Russia, Japan, and Belgium gained control through military or economic dominance
• The U.S. participated in this, seeking success through economic and diplomatic means rather than military action
• Expansion into overseas territories marked a change from past U.S. practices, supported for various reasons

Economic Interests

• Growing industries supported expanding U.S. economic interests worldwide
• Foreign countries offered valuable raw materials (minerals, oil, rubber) and markets for products
• The Republican Party and business leaders favored an imperialist foreign policy
• Farmers wanted to sell overseas, viewing growing populations in cities as potential markets

Political and Military Power

• Some believed the U.S. needed to compete with imperialistic nations to avoid being a second-class power
• Alfred Thayer Mahan argued that a strong navy was crucial for securing foreign markets and becoming a world power in "The Influence of Sea Power Upon History" (1890)
• Congress financed modern steel ships and acquired overseas islands like Samoa for coaling and supply stations
• By 1900, the U.S. Navy was the third largest, with leaders like Theodore Roosevelt and Henry Cabot Lodge advocating naval power expansion

Social Fears

• The Panic of 1893, labor-management conflicts, and the perceived end of the frontier caused fear of social turmoil
• Overseas territories offered a safety valve for dissatisfied urban workers and farmers

Darwinism and Religion

• Expansion into the Caribbean, Central America, and the Pacific was seen as an extension of Manifest Destiny
• Darwin's concept of survival of the fittest was applied to competition among countries
• Josiah Strong wrote that Anglo-Saxons were "fittest to survive," believing Protestant Americans had a duty to colonize and spread Christianity and their "superior" civilization
• Missionaries in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific believed in White racial superiority and sought U.S. government involvement to support their efforts

Popular Press

• Newspaper and magazine editors increased circulation by printing adventure stories about distant places
• These stories increased public interest and demands for a larger U.S. role in world affairs

Opposition to Imperialism

• Many in the U.S. opposed imperialism due to:
  • Belief in self-determination for all people
  • Rejection of racial theories that Whites were superior
  • Support for isolationism, following George Washington's advice
  • Opposition to the expense of imperialism

Latin America

• The U.S. had a special interest in the Western Hemisphere, assuming the role of protector of Latin America from European ambitions, starting with the Monroe Doctrine in the 1820s
• James G. Blaine played a key role in extending this tradition

Pan-American Diplomacy

• Blaine's efforts to strengthen ties between the U.S. and its southern neighbors led to the first Pan-American Conference in 1889
• Representatives created an organization to promote cooperation on trade and other issues
• The Pan-American Union evolved into the Organization of American States in 1948

Cleveland, Olney, and the Monroe Doctrine

• President Cleveland and Secretary of State Richard Olney used the Monroe Doctrine in a boundary dispute between Venezuela and British Guiana in 1895-1896
• They insisted Britain arbitrate, leading to British agreement as U.S. friendship was more important
• Arbitrators ruled mainly in favor of Britain, yet Latin American nations appreciated U.S. efforts to protect them
• The Venezuela boundary dispute marked a shift towards U.S.–British friendship, vital for both nations in the 20th century

Growing Conflict over Imperialism

• The Monroe Doctrine provided expansionists an open invitation to interfere in other American nations
• A political battle ensued between those supporting anti-colonial traditions and those committed to economic and global power
• The conflict intensified during the Spanish-American War and the colonization of the Philippines

Differing Views on Imperialism:

• American imperialists sought overseas territories for economic, military, and ideological reasons, such as accessing raw materials, establishing naval bases, and spreading American ideals
• Anti-imperialists, however, opposed acquiring these territories, arguing it contradicted self-determination, promoted racial inequality, and violated isolationist principles

Spanish-American War and U.S. Foreign Policy to 1917

• Initial targets of American imperialism were nearby Caribbean islands
• Expansionists in the South had long eyed Cuba
• Large American investments in Cuban sugar, Spanish misrule of Cuba, and the Monroe Doctrine motivated U.S. intervention

Spanish-American War

• American public opinion was swept by jingoism, calling for an aggressive foreign policy
• Expansionists wanted to join European imperialist nations as a world power
• Presidents Cleveland and McKinley considered military action morally wrong and economically unsound
• Specific events and background pressures led to overwhelming popular demand for war against Spain

Causes of the War

• A combination of jingoism, economic interests, and moral concerns increased U.S. willingness to engage in war in 1898

Cuban Revolt

• Cuban nationalists fought to overthrow Spanish rule, renewing their struggle in 1895
• They sabotaged and attacked Cuban plantations to either push Spain out or draw the U.S. in as an ally
• Spain sent General Valeriano Weyler with 100,000 troops, forcing civilians into camps where tens of thousands died of starvation and disease
• Weyler gained the title of "the Butcher" in the U.S. press

Yellow Press

• Sensationalistic reporting fueled war fever in the United States
• Newspapers like Joseph Pulitzer’s New York World and William Randolph Hearst’s New York Journal printed exaggerated accounts of Spanish atrocities in Cuba
• Americans urged Congress and the president to intervene in Cuba for humanitarian reasons

De Lôme Letter (1898)

• A leaked letter from Spanish diplomat Dupuy de Lôme criticizing President McKinley caused outrage
• It was seen as an official Spanish insult against U.S. national honor

Sinking of the Maine

• On February 15, 1898, the U.S. battleship USS Maine exploded in Havana harbor, killing 260 Americans
• The yellow press blamed Spain, though experts later concluded it was likely an accident

McKinley’s War Message

• After the sinking of the USS Maine, President McKinley demanded Spain cease fire in Cuba
• U.S. newspapers and Congress clamored for war
• McKinley sent a war message to Congress with four reasons to support the Cuban rebels:
  • End barbarities and bloodshed
  • Protect U.S. citizens’ lives and property
  • End injury to U.S. commerce and trade
  • End the constant menace to U.S. peace

Teller Amendment

• On April 20, 1898, Congress authorized war
• The Teller Amendment declared the U.S. had no intention of taking political control of Cuba and would allow the Cuban people to control their own government

Fighting the War

• The first shots of the Spanish-American War were fired in Manila Bay in the Philippines
• The U.S. won quickly, with Secretary of State John Hay calling it "a splendid little war"

The Philippines

• Theodore Roosevelt, Assistant Secretary of the Navy, sent Commodore George Dewey to the Philippines
• On May 1, Commodore Dewey’s fleet fired on Spanish ships in Manila Bay
• U.S. troops captured Manila on August 13 with the help of Filipino rebels

Invasion of Cuba

• An ill-prepared U.S. force landed in Cuba in June
• Tropical diseases killed more soldiers than Spanish bullets
• American and Cuban forces defeated the Spanish army
• The Rough Riders, led by Theodore Roosevelt, charged up San Juan Hill
• The U.S. Navy destroyed the Spanish fleet at Santiago Bay on July 3
• Spain requested peace terms in early August 1898

Annexation of Hawaii

• The outbreak of war in the Philippines prompted Congress and President McKinley to annex Hawaii
• The Hawaiian Islands became a U.S. territory in 1900

Controversy over the Treaty of Peace

• The Treaty of Paris, signed December 10, 1898, included:
  • Recognition of Cuban independence
  • U.S. acquisition of Puerto Rico and Guam
  • U.S. control of the Philippines in exchange for a $20 million payment to Spain
• Many Americans opposed taking over the Philippines as a colony

The Philippine Question

• Opinion in Congress and with the public was divided between imperialists favoring annexation and anti-imperialists opposing it
• Anti-imperialists argued taking possession of the Philippines violated the Declaration of Independence
• On February 6, 1899, the Treaty of Paris was approved 57 to 27 in Congress
• Filipino nationalist leader Emilio Aguinaldo led guerrilla fighters against U.S. control
• The conflict resulted in the deaths of 5,000 U.S. troops and hundreds of thousands of Filipinos

Other Results of the War

• Imperialism remained a major issue after the Treaty of Paris
• The American Anti-Imperialist League opposed further acts of expansion in the Pacific

Insular Cases

• The Supreme Court ruled that constitutional rights were not automatically extended to territorial possessions
• The power to decide whether to grant such rights belonged to Congress

Cuba and the Platt Amendment (1901)

• The Teller Amendment had guaranteed U.S. respect for Cuba’s sovereignty
• U.S. troops remained in Cuba until 1901
• Congress made withdrawal conditional on Cuba accepting the Platt Amendment, which:
  • Prevented Cuba from signing treaties with foreign powers that impaired its independence
  • Permitted the U.S. to intervene in Cuba to preserve its independence and maintain order
  • Allowed the U.S. to maintain naval bases in Cuba, including Guantanamo Bay
• The Platt Amendment made Cuba a U.S. protectorate

Election of 1900

• Republicans re-nominated President McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt
• Democrats nominated William Jennings Bryan, who attacked American imperialism
• McKinley won by a larger margin than in 1896

Recognition of U.S. Power

• The U.S. victory filled Americans with national pride
• European nations recognized the U.S. as a first-class power

Open Door Policy in China

• Secretary of State John Hay sought to prevent the U.S. from losing access to the China trade
• Nations established spheres of influence in China, controlling trade and investment within their sphere
• In 1899, Hay asked nations to accept the concept of an Open Door, by which all nations would have equal trading privileges in China
• Hay declared that all nations had accepted the Open Door policy

Boxer Rebellion (1900)

• Chinese nationalists attacked foreign settlements and murdered Christian missionaries
• U.S. troops participated in an international force that crushed the rebellion
• Countries forced China to pay a huge indemnity

Hay’s Second Round of Notes

• Hay stated the U.S. commitment to preserve China’s territorial integrity and safeguard equal trade
• Hay’s notes influenced U.S. relations with Japan in the 1930s
• European powers were kept from grabbing larger pieces of China due to rivalries among themselves

Theodore Roosevelt’s “Big Stick” Policy

• Theodore Roosevelt became president after McKinley’s assassination in 1901
• He pursued an aggressive foreign policy, using the motto to "speak softly and carry a big stick"
• Critics disliked breaking the tradition of nonentanglement in global politics

The Panama Canal

• A canal through Central America was seen as strategically necessary
• The U.S. negotiated the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty with Britain in 1901, allowing the U.S. to build a canal
• Frustrated by Colombia’s refusal to agree to U.S. terms, Roosevelt orchestrated a revolt for Panama’s independence in 1903
• The Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty granted the U.S. rights over the Canal Zone

Building the Canal

• Started in 1904, the Panama Canal was completed in 1914
• Completed mostly due to the work of George Goethals, the chief engineer, and Dr. William Gorgas, who eliminated mosquitoes
• In 1921, Congress voted to pay Colombia an indemnity of $25 million for its loss of Panama
• In 1999, the United States returned the Canal Zone to Panama

The Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine

• In 1904, Roosevelt declared the U.S. would intervene in Latin America to ensure debts to European creditors were paid
• This policy was known as the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine
• Over the next 20 years, U.S. forces were sent into Haiti, Honduras, the Dominican Republic, and Nicaragua

Roosevelt and Asia

• As the 20th century began, Japan and the U.S. were new imperialist powers in East Asia

Russo-Japanese War

• Imperialist rivalry led to war in 1904
• Roosevelt arranged a diplomatic conference in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, in 1905
• The Treaty of Portsmouth was agreed upon, but Japanese nationalists blamed the U.S. for not giving their country all they deserved

“Gentlemen’s Agreement”

• Laws in California discriminated against Japanese Americans
• In 1908, Roosevelt arranged a compromise where the Japanese government restricted emigration of workers in return for California repealing discriminatory laws

Great White Fleet

• Roosevelt sent a fleet of battleships on an around-the-world cruise (1907–1909) to demonstrate U.S. naval power

Root-Takahira Agreement (1908)

• The U.S. and Japan pledged mutual respect for each nation’s Pacific possessions and support for the Open Door policy in China

Peace Efforts

• Roosevelt was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1906 for settling the Russo-Japanese War
• He helped arrange the Algeciras Conference in Spain and U.S. participation at the Second International Peace Conference at The Hague in 1907

William Howard Taft and Dollar Diplomacy

• William Howard Taft (1909–1913) adopted a foreign policy that depended more on investors’ dollars than on the navy’s battleships, known as "dollar diplomacy"

American Investors

• Taft believed private American financial investment in China and Central America would lead to greater stability and promote U.S. business interests

Railroads in China

• Taft secured American participation in an agreement to invest in railroads in China, signed in 1911
• The U.S. was excluded from an agreement between Russia and Japan to build railroads in Manchuria

Intervention in Nicaragua

• The U.S. intervened in Nicaragua’s financial affairs in 1911 and sent in marines when a civil war broke out in 1912
• The marines remained, except for a short period, until 1933

Woodrow Wilson and Foreign Affairs

• Woodrow Wilson promised a New Freedom, including a moral approach to foreign affairs

Wilson’s Moral Diplomacy

• Wilson attempted to show that the U.S. respected other nations’ rights and supported the spread of democracy

The Philippines

• Wilson won passage of the Jones Act of 1916, which:
  • Granted full territorial status to the Philippines
  • Guaranteed a bill of rights and universal male suffrage to Filipino citizens
  • Promised independence for the Philippines once a stable government was established

Puerto Rico

• An act of Congress in 1917 granted U.S. citizenship to all Puerto Ricans and provided for limited self-government

The Panama Canal

• Wilson persuaded Congress in 1914 to repeal an act that had granted U.S. ships an exemption from paying the standard canal tolls

Conciliation Treaties

• William Jennings Bryan negotiated treaties in which nations pledged to submit disputes to international commissions and observe a one-year cooling-of period before taking military action

Military Intervention Under Wilson

• Wilson intervened in Mexico and countries of Central America and the Caribbean, sending U.S. marines in response to financial and political troubles
• He argued intervention was necessary to maintain stability and protect the Panama Canal

Intervention in Mexico

• Wilson refused to recognize Victoriano Huerta’s military dictatorship in Mexico
• He called for an arms embargo and blockaded the port of Vera Cruz
• In 1914, U.S. sailors were arrested in Tampico, leading to the U.S. Navy occupying Veracruz
• South America’s ABC powers mediated the dispute

Pancho Villa and the U.S. Expeditionary Force

• Pancho Villa led raids across the U.S.–Mexican border, killing several people
• In March 1916, Wilson ordered General John J. Pershing to pursue Villa into northern Mexico
• Pershing failed to capture Villa, and Wilson withdrew troops in January 1917 due to the possibility of U.S. entry into World War I

Uncertain Rise to Power

• The Spanish-American War showed the U.S. as a rising power
• American reluctance to get involved in World War I reflected concerns over entanglement in overseas conflicts

Effects of the Spanish-American War on Foreign Policy:

• The United States became an expansionist power with overseas territories, leading to debates over imperialism and the rights of inhabitants in acquired lands
• The U.S. asserted itself as a dominant force in the Western Hemisphere, as evidenced by the Platt Amendment in Cuba and interventions in Latin American countries to protect U.S. interests

The Progressives

Goals and Effects of the Progressive Reform Movement

• Progressives sought a larger role for government and greater democracy
• Successes included four constitutional amendments: graduated income tax, direct election of senators, women's suffrage, and prohibition of alcohol
• The Progressive movement's impact on American politics is undisputed

Origins of Progressivism

• As America entered the 20th century, the rapid transformation of industrialization unsettled many
• Middle-class Americans were alarmed by the power of big business, uncertain business cycles, the gap between rich and poor, labor conflicts, and corrupt political machines

Progressives Versus Populists

• Most disturbing to minorities were the racist Jim Crow laws in the South
• Crusaders for women’s suffrage joined the call for greater democracy
• The Progressive movement built on the work of populist reformers and union activists of the Gilded Age
• Theodore Roosevelt became president in 1901, adding national momentum
• The Progressive era lasted through the presidencies of Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, and Woodrow Wilson
• Congress and state legislatures enacted major regulatory laws; U.S. entry into World War I ended the era

Who Were the Progressives?

• Diverse reformers were loosely united in the Progressive movement
• Protestant church leaders, African Americans, union leaders, and feminists lobbied for specific reforms
• They shared basic beliefs that society needed changes to limit the power of big business, improve democracy, and strengthen social justice
• Government, whether at the local, state, or federal level, was the proper agency for making these changes Moderate reforms were usually better than radical ones

Urban Middle Class

• Progressives were mostly middle-class men and women who lived in cities
• The urban middle class had steadily grown, employing white-collar office workers and middle managers

Professional Class

• Members of this business and professional middle class took their civic responsibilities seriously
• They were versed in scientific and statistical methods and the findings of the new social sciences
• They belonged to national business and professional associations that addressed corrupt business and government practices and urban social and economic problems

Religion

• A missionary spirit inspired some middle-class reformers
• Protestant churches preached against vice and taught a code of social responsibility to care for the less fortunate and promote honesty in public life
• The Social Gospel popularized by Walter Rauschenbusch was important in Protestant Christians’ response to urban poverty

Leadership

• Dedicated and able leaders challenged the status quo
• Theodore Roosevelt and Robert La Follette (Republican) and William Jennings Bryan and Woodrow Wilson (Democrat) demonstrated vigorous political leadership

The Progressives’ Philosophy

• Progressivism was one phase in a reform tradition going back to the Jefersonians, Jacksonians, and Populists

Pragmatism

• A revolution in thinking occurred at the same time as the Industrial Revolution
• Charles Darwin presented the concept of evolution by natural selection in his On the Origin of Species (1859)
• Others applied his concepts to human society to justify accumulating great wealth and laissez-faire capitalism
• William James and John Dewey argued that "truth" should pass the public test of observable results in an open, democratic society
• Citizens and institutions should experiment with ideas and laws and test them in action until they found something that would produce a well-functioning democratic society
• Progressive thinkers adopted pragmatism to challenge fixed ideas and beliefs, rejecting the laissez-faire theory

Scientific Management

• Frederick W. Taylor used a stopwatch to time tasks performed by factory workers, discovering ways of organizing people in the most efficient manner

Progressives:

• Objected to the corruption of political bosses partially because it was anti-democratic and partially because it was an inefficient way to run things

The Muckrakers

• Investigative journalists created in-depth articles about child labor, corrupt political bosses, and monopolistic business practices
• Theodore Roosevelt criticized writers who focused on negative stories as "muckrakers"

Origins of Muckrakers:

• Henry Demarest Lloyd attacked the practices of the Standard Oil Company and the railroads in 1881
• His book, Wealth Against Commonwealth, exposed the corruption and greed of the oil monopoly

Magazines

• Samuel Sidney McClure founded McClure’s Magazine in 1893, which ran muckraking articles by Lincoln Stefens and Ida Tarbell

Decline of Muckraking

• The popularity of muckraking books and magazine articles began to decline after 1910
• Writers found it more difficult to top the sensationalism of the last story
• Publishers faced economic pressures from banks and advertisers to tone down their treatment of business
• By 1910, corporations were concerned about their public image and created public relations
• Muckraking exposed inequities, educated the public about corruption, and prepared the way for corrective action

Political Reforms in Cities and States

• Progressives expressed their ideology differently
• Some looked to professional and technical experts for advice, distrusting urban political machines and supporting restrictions on immigration Others placed more trust in common people
• They opposed immigration restrictions, believing voters would elect honest officials
• Progressives advocated reforms for increasing citizen participation in political decision-making

Australian, or Secret, Ballot

• Massachusetts adopted a system of state-printed ballots with voters marking choices within a private booth in which all states adopted the secret ballot by 1910

Direct Primaries

• Robert La Follette introduced the direct primary in 1903
• By 1915, some form of the direct primary was used in every state
• The system’s effectiveness in overthrowing boss rule was limited
• Some Southern states used White-only primaries to exclude African Americans from voting

Direct Election of U.S. Senators

• States gave voters the opportunity to elect U.S. senators directly
• In 1913, ratification of the 17th Amendment required that all U.S. senators be elected by popular vote

Initiative, Referendum, and Recall

• Voters could compel the legislature to consider a bill using the initiative
• Citizens could vote on proposed laws using the referendum
• The recall enabled voters to remove a corrupt or unsatisfactory politician from office by majority vote

Municipal Reforms

• City bosses and their corrupt alliances were among the first targets of Progressive leaders
• Samuel “Golden Rule” Jones introduced reform, including free kindergartens, night schools, and public playgrounds
• Tom L. Johnson fought for tax reform and three-cent trolley fares, but without success

Controlling Public Utilities

• Reform leaders sought to break city bosses and take utilities out of private companies
• By 1915, two-thirds of the nation’s cities owned their own water systems

Commissions and City Managers

• Galveston, Texas, adopted a commission plan of government in 1900
• Dayton, Ohio, hired an expert manager to direct city departments in 1913
• By 1923, more than 300 cities had adopted the manager-council plan

State Reforms:

• At the state level, reform governors battled corporate interests and championed the initiative, referendum, and the direct primary
• Charles Evans Hughes battled fraudulent insurance companies in New York
• Hiram Johnson fought against the Southern Pacific Railroad in California
• Robert La Follette won passage of the “Wisconsin Idea,” including a direct primary law, tax reform, and state regulatory commissions

Temperance and Prohibition

• Whether to shut down saloons and prohibit alcohol divided reformers
• Rural reformers sought to clean up morals and politics by abolishing liquor
• By 1915, two-thirds of the states prohibited the sale of alcohol

Social Welfare

• Urban life was improved by settlement house workers and civic-minded volunteers
• Jane Addams, Florence Kelley, and other leaders needed political support in state legislatures
• They lobbied for better schools, juvenile courts, liberalized divorce laws, and safety regulations
• Reformers fought for measures such as parole, separate reformatories for juveniles, and limits on the death penalty

Child and Women Labor

• The National Child Labor Committee proposed model child labor laws
• State compulsory school attendance laws kept children out of mines and factories
• The National Consumers’ League organized to pass state laws to protect women from long working hours
• In Lochner v. New York (1905) the Supreme Court ruled against a state law limiting workers to a ten hour workday
• In Muller v. Oregon (1908) the Supreme Court ruled that the health of women needed special protection from long hours
• The Triangle Shirtwaist fire (1911) sparked greater women’s activism and pushed states to pass laws to improve safety and working conditions