US History: 19th Century to WWII Foreign Policy

• This text covers the 19th century through World War II, touching on US foreign policy, immigration, the Spanish Civil War, and the ethical debates surrounding the Allied bombing of Germany.

19th Century US

• During the 19th century, the US avoided foreign entanglements.
• Manifest Destiny fueled westward expansion and territorial annexation.
• The Industrial Revolution drove annexing and settling territories.
• The US became the wealthiest and most powerful nation in the world due to its lack of income tax. The government was funded by tariffs.
• European nations started assigning ambassadors to Washington D.C.
• The Columbian Exposition increased trade with Latin America.
• The US adopted anti-expansion and anti-colonial policies.

Monroe Doctrine

• Established in 1823 by James Monroe, asserting US influence in the Western Hemisphere.
• It declared the Americas closed to European colonization.
• Any European intervention in the Americas was considered a threat to US peace and safety.
• The US promised not to interfere in European affairs.
• It laid groundwork for the US to become a sphere of influence.
• It symbolized American exceptionalism and set the stage for a more active global role.

19th Century Immigration

• There was a large influx of immigrants from Germany, Ireland, and the UK in the early 19th century.
• The British banking system's failure and the Irish potato famine led to increased immigration.
• Immigration shifted to Southern and Eastern Europe (Italians, Russians, Poles) later in the century.
• The Industrial Revolution created labor shortages, attracting more workers.
• Push factors for immigration included political unrest, economic hardship, and social issues.
• Pull factors included the promise of jobs, better wages, and established immigrant communities.
• Many immigrants settled in big cities, causing rapid urban growth.
• The US began enacting immigration restrictions - Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 and the Immigration Act of 1891.

The War of 1898 and American Imperialism

• By the late 19th century, East Asia and European nations challenged American trade.
• The US needed more island bases.
• Anglo-Saxonism influenced beliefs in racial hierarchy.
• Colonialism was viewed as noble and right, aligning with jingoism (inflamed nationalism).
• The US believed it had the right to intervene if American interests were threatened in Cuba.
• Yellow Journalism exaggerated Spanish atrocities in Cuba.
• The sinking of the USS Maine rallied public support for war. 266 Americans died, cause internal explosion possibly staged.
• By 1870, doubled population, territory, and economic interests driving the war design
• The Treaty of Paris in 1898 ended the war.
• Cuba gained independence, while Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines became US territories.
• The US emerged as a global leader, becoming an imperial power and establishing naval bases.
• The 1901 Platt Amendment allowed US intervention in Cuban affairs.

World War I and US Participation

• The US stayed neutral initially due to historical isolationism and focus on domestic issues.
• Public sentiment was largely against intervention.
• The US economy was thriving by selling industrial and agricultural goods to Europe.
• German U-boats sunk the Lusitania killing 128 Americans
• Arthur Zimmerman of Germany sent a telegram to Mexico, asking to declare war on the US to keep them out of Europe and promising the return of territories in the Southwest, but was intercepted.
• Many Americans had European roots, drawing them closer to the conflict.

US Troops in WWI

• The US Army had 4 million people, with 1.2 million in the Field Army.
• US goals were largely to liberate France.
• US troops landed in France in June 1917 and WW1 ended in November 1918.
• US troops brought a numbers and fresh soldiers, that could aid the tired and defeated allied troops
• The US contribution provided technologies and industry.
• Tanks and infantry modernized the battlefield via Trench Warfare.

Post-WWI Peace and Financial Politics

• Post-war negotiations focused on disarmament, dismemberment of empires, and reparations.
• The US accepted financial payback against Germany.
• Germany owed Great Britain/France reparations.
• Great Britain/France owed payback on American loans.
• Dawes Plan (1924): lowered interest payback with France occupying the Ruhr Valley.
• Young Plan (1929): set a payback deadline for 1988.
• The Great Depression in 1929 impacted the Young Plan.

The League of Nations

• The US did not join the League of Nations due to isolationist sentiments in Congress.
• There was little public support despite Wilson's efforts.
• Wilson lost the midterm elections.
• Article 10 was the main issue because it called for a member nation to be obligated to defend it, if it were to be attacked.

Interwar Period and US Involvement in Europe

• US involvement in Europe during the 1920s consisted of investment and soft power (consumer goods, films, jazz, literature, etc.).
• US investment went from $700 million in 1919 to $1.3 billion in 1929 and Europe became the most important trading region for the US.
• The US was more involved, viewed by Europenas as "a city upon a hill."
• Tourism increased to Europe and medicine/healthcare improved.
• Some countries were rebuilding, became less self sufficient and relied on the US
• Jazz became popular, sparking social charge in Europe (less traditional, more progressive)
• Hollywood films began spreading Americans culture.

Economic Recession and Isolationism

• The Great Depression in 1929 led to a global recession, mass unemployment, bank failures, and stock market crashes.
• The US government, under Roosevelt, shifted focus from Europe to domestic issues.
• Two Neutrality Acts were passed in the 1930s and Protectionist Trade Policies (Smoot-Hawley Tariff)
• Emergency Banking Act: Federal Support for Banks, ‘Bank Holiday' to prevent runs.
• The New Deal implemented massive investment in agriculture and infrastructure.
• This helped to rebuild America and create jobs
• Social Security and Unemployment insurance laws were enacted.
• Labor Rights such as the Wagner Act allowed workers to Unionize and use collective bargaining

Roosevelt's Administration and Fascism

• Roosevelt initially viewed Mussolini as a "soundful and useful leader" and believed that Mussolini could be a moderate influence on Hitler.
• The fascist leaders like Mussolini were viewed as safe against communism
• The US was cautious about Hitler's rise to power, believing it was a strong communist force.
• It was believed that Germany could potentially accept a liberal economy
• When Italy invaded Ethiopia, the US viewed war in Europe as a greater threat
• They didn't want to interfere, ignoring Mussolini's actions to hold moderate influence over Hitler

1933-1939:

• Isolationism reigned with pacifist/antiwar sentiment
• NYE Committee Hearings revealed foreign leaders bribed to buy US products
• 80% of oil in Europe came from the US - Neutrality Acts of 1935, 1936, 1937: No war machines would be sold to countries at war, No loans/credit, and also applied to civil war

Spanish Civil War

• Military coup in July 1936 divided Spain.
• After areas were occupied by the Republic and Insurgents the locations followed previous voting patterns.
• The center and north-west parts of the South of Spain were taken over by the rebels
• The Republic primarily controlled areas on the northern coast, east coast and the key capital of Madrid.
• The loyalties among groups in the civil war were varied.
• Franco's base consisted of monarchs and those who wanted to connect with church and state.
• The major European powers demonstrated appeasement policies and did not want to intervene in the conflcit
• The Non-Intervention Agreement in August 1936 was violated without repercussion by Germany and Italy
• Stalin and the USSR sent military aid for the Republic.
• As a result of the sieges of large cities, bombings and brutal warfare, civilian deaths were prominent.

Main Battles and Military Events of the War

• During the Battle for Madrid, Franco moved his Army of Africa to capture the city of Toledo.
• In the fortress Alcazar, the Republic militia delayed the insurgent advance by two weeks so defenses could be set up for the capital city of Madrid
• The insurgent armies began to circle Madrid, taking over rural villages.
• Many civilians were killed as a result of bombings.
• The Popular Army in Madrid, made up of working-class, communists, socialists and anarchists played a role in defending the city against insurgents
• The Italian Forces supported Nationalist troops in the South of Madrid and German forces introduced the blitzkrieg tactic in Basque Country
• The Republic did not have air or artillery superiority
• A March 1938 invasion through Aragon and Catalonia split the Republican territory into two and France was cautious with Catalonia
• A July 1938 attack made by the insurgents at Ebro led with their more advanced military power.
• April 1938 → Anglo-Italian Treat and September 1938 → Munich Agreement which Sanctioned any British intervention in Spain

The Republic Lost the Civil War because

• Internal conflict and uprising as a result of Communist Groups
• The superior military of Germany and Italy provided Franco with artillery and air dominance
• The Nationalist Army was far more battle-tested and uniform
• The Nationalist Army was unified around 1 central command
• The failure of fellow democracies in Britain and France to come to the aid of the Republicans.
• The set the stage for Hitler and Mussolini's European expansion

The Lincoln Brigade

• Made up of units of American volunteers
• Made in symbolism to stand against facism and tyranny
• Leftist activists against fascists
• Described the conflict as a 'holy fight'
• The Comintern the world wide communist organized, brought soliders to Spain through france.
• 2000 died in combat
• It was not that significant in the broader context

Support for Franco in the US

• Conservative and Right-Wing groups, supported Franco's staunch anti-communist stance
• American Catholic Church supported Franco as his pledged to restore traditional values in Spain
• American businesses, primarily in oil industry supported Franco as they wanted a stable government to protect their investments (Standard Oil Company and Texaco).

Position of the US Government during the Spanish Civil War

• Neutral
• Arms embargo was implemented to prevent sales of weapons and military supplies to both sides.
• It indirectly hurt the Republic since Franco was able to obtain supplies form Hitler and Mussolini, but the Republicans could not get the equipment to combat Franco's forces

US Participation in Europe in World War II

• US provided Military aid to Great Britain during 1939-1941 (Cash and Carry), sell arms, loans, equipment
• Ships in exchange for US use of British colonies at bases
• They provided military equipment to Britain, USSR, Australia, China.
• 49 Billion dollars in equipment across 36 countries - Made GB more dependent
• The Lend and Lease program extended to the Soviet Union in October 1941
• Germany declared war on the US in December 1941
• US and Great Britain launched invasion of North Africa (Operation Torch) in November 1942 (General Patton led the operation)
• Established a basis to bomb Italy/Germany and Set up the eventual invasion of Sicily
• May 1943: German and Italian troops in North Africa surrender
• The Allies landed in Sicily in July and entered Naples in November
• June 1944: Landings on the northern coast of France (Operation Overlord)
• The Battle of the Bulge (Dec 1944-Jan 1945) was the deadliest battle fought by the US in WWII (90,000 Americans died)

Allied Bombing of German Cities

• Richard Overy's book The Bombers and the Bombed: Allied Air War Over Europe, 1940-1945 discusses the controversy around the Allied bombing campaign with people wanting to break morale
• There were controversy from the very beginning in terms of targets to be attacked: civilian and military targets
• In the end, 353,000 Germans were killed by Allied bombs and cities like Hamburg were burned to the ground.
• Troops had to be rerouted from factories and the Easter Front
• Ethical arguments include:
  • Indiscriminate Killing: Hundreds of thousands of civilians died, including children and the elderly.
  • Firebombing as a War Crime?: Some historians and critics argue that firebombing was equivalent to mass murder.
  • Violation of Just War Theory: According to just war principles, civilian targets should be avoided whenever possible.
• Straregic Ineffiencies include: :
  • Failed to Break German Morale: Studies after the war showed that German civilians became more resilient after the bombings rather than surrendering.
  • Ineffective Compared to the Soviet Advance: The Soviet Union's invasion from the east played a much larger role in Germany's surrender than the bombings.
  • Could Resources Have Been Used Elsewhere?: Some historians argue the bombings diverted resources that could have been used to speed up D-Day or other military efforts..
• Aftermath and Historical Debate:
  • Churchill himself distanced from the firebombing campaign after the war.
  • Nuremberg Trials did not charge anyone for strategic bombing.
  • Tje bombings set a precedent for aerial warfare in future conflicts (e.g., Vietnam, Iraq).
• Historical Perspectives:
  • Justified: Some historians see it as a necessary evil to defeat Nazi Germany.
  • Excessive: Others argue it was indiscriminate and unnecessary, especially in Dresden and late-war bombings.
• Comparison to the Atomic Bombings of Japan:
  • The moral debate over firebombing German cities parallels discussions on the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings.
  • Both involved targeting civilian populations to force an enemy's surrender.

Allied Bombing Campaign

• During World War II, the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) and the British Royal Air Force (RAF) carried out extensive bombing raids on Germany. The bombs were used to destroy Germany's war production facilities, weaken German morale, and force an early surrender by crippling Germany's economy and infrastructure.

The US and Great Britain Differences in Bombing Strategies

• The United States (USAAF): targeted military installations, industrial centers, and transportation hubs in an Advocation for precision bombing tactic
• Britain (RAF Bomber Command): Focused on area bombing (carpet bombing), which involved deliberate attacks on cities and civilian populations to break German morale.

Overview of the Allied Bombing Campaign: The Bombing of Hamburg (Operation Gomorrah, July 1943)

• A major German city that was one of the first large-scale bombings.
• The RAF and USAAF used firebombing tactics, launching a week-long bombing campaign
• Tens of thousands of civilians were killed in a firestorm of hurricane-force winds and searing temperatures.
• Hamburg was a crucial industrial and naval hub.

Other campaigns and targets

• The bombing of Dresden and Berlin were one of the war's most infamous firebombings.
• Many cities had factories, railways, and military supply chains essential to the Nazi war effort.
• Civilians were involved in the cities production, so they were considered legitimate targets.

American Footprints in Barcelona

• Skyscrapers, Chicago style buildings and glass boxes First skyscraper in Barcelona was the FABREGAS BUILDING in 1924
• Torre Urquinaona more than 10 stories Skyscraper
• The First Thoroughfare: Connects city center to the port "Highway within city"