Urinary System Anatomy and Physiology

• The urinary system's functions include removing waste, maintaining electrolyte balance, and regulating pH levels in the blood.
• The right kidney is slightly lower than the left, both are outside the peritoneal cavity, and are surrounded by a layer of fat.
• The kidneys require approximately 20% of the blood pumped by the heart to effectively clean the blood.
• The outermost layer of the kidney is called the renal cortex, and the inner portion is called the renal medulla.
• The renal pelvis is an expansion of the upper end of the ureter, while the calyx receives urine from the renal pyramids.
• The papilla of the renal pyramids opens into the calyx.
• The Bowman capsule is a structure found in the renal corpuscle.
• The glomerulus is considered the first segment of the renal tubules.
• The distal convoluted tubule drains into the collecting duct.
• The glomerulus is part of the circulatory system but is included in discussions of the urinary system.
• Urinary retention is when the kidneys produce urine, but the bladder cannot empty.
• Urinary retention can be treated by the insertion of a urinary catheter.
• Renal calculi include inflammation.
• Cystitis refers to the inflammation of the bladder.
• Renal columns are extensions of cortical tissue that extend into the medulla between renal pyramids.
• The loop of Henle is located between the proximal and distal convoluted tubules.
• Erythropoietin is secreted by the kidneys, stimulates formation of red blood cells, and acts on the blood-forming tissue of the spleen.
• Filtration occurs in the renal corpuscle.
• ADH (antidiuretic hormone) is released from the pituitary gland.
• RAAS (renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system) is initiated by the kidney and stimulates the secretion of aldosterone.
• The reproductive cells from males include spermatozoa, and those from females include ova.
• The function of the acrosome in the sperm is to store enzymes to help break down the covering of the ovum.
• The function of the midpiece of the sperm is to store mitochondria to supply energy.
• The function of testosterone is to masculize the male, to promote and maintain the development of the male accessory organs, and to stimulate protein anabolism.
• Epididymis is a comma-shaped coiled tube.
• The testis is located in the scrotum.
• Seminiferous tubules are tubes found in the lobes of the testis which comprise the majority of testicular tissue mass.
• The ductus deferens allows sperm to exit the scrotum and is part of the spermatic cord.
• The prostate gland makes up about 30% of the seminal fluid.
• Seminal vesicle produces a thick, yellowish fluid that contains fructose and makes up about almost two thirds % of the seminal fluid.
• The tunica albuginea is the tough membrane surrounding each testis.
• Follicle-stimulating hormone stimulates spermatogenesis.
• A sharp drop in progesterone causes menstruation to occur.
• The absence of normal menstruation is called amenorrhea.
• Spermatogonia are stem cells.
• The head of the sperm contains the nucleus.
• There are two columns of corpus cavernosum in the penis.
• Hydrocele is a cause of swelling of the scrotum.
• Infertility can be caused by Oligospermia.
• Cryptorchidism is the condition in which the testes fail to descend into the scrotum.

Oogenesis and Spermatogenesis

• In oogenesis, cells with only 23 chromosomes are formed, and there is only one functional gamete produced.
• Estrogen results in the development and maturation of female reproductive organs.
• Progesterone is responsible for the development of the female body contours.
• Myometrium is the muscular layer of the uterus.
• Another name for the uterine tubes is oviduct and fallopian tubes.
• The part of the uterus that lies above the point where the uterine tubes attach is called the fundus.
• The external genitals are part of the duct that extends from the ovaries.
• The secretory phase follows ovulation.
• Follicle stimulating hormone stimulates immature ovarian follicles to start growing.
• The carotid arteries are branches off of the aorta.

Breathing

• Dyspnea is labored or difficult breathing.
• Cheyne-Stokes respiration is an alternation of hyperventilation and a stoppage in breathing that usually occurs in critically ill people
• All the above mentioned things assists in filtering, warming and breathing the air.
• Aorta is not the structure of the respitory tract.

Respiratory system

• Muscle responsible to push oxygen is in the diaphram.
• The respiratory mucosa traps contaminants, acts as a the lining of the blood capillaries to humidify the air.
• External nares are also known as nostrils.
• Bone that contains the paranasal sinuses includes, ethmoid, maxilla and frontal bones.
• Eustachian tube is what doesnt drain into the nasal cavity.
• Another structure includes parts of the larynx and palatine tonsils.
• Alveolar ducts are the first structures without cartilage as a supporting tissue that inspired air passes through.
• Cellular respiration is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the cells and the blood.
• The cellular respiration is the process in which oxygen is used for cell metabolism