10 Questions
Which T cell type secretes IFN-γ and IL-2 to activate macrophages and cytotoxic T cells?
Th1
What is the function of Th2 cells in the immune response?
Activate eosinophils and increase IgE production
Where does positive selection of T cells occur?
Thymic cortex
Which T cell type is involved in inducing neutrophilic inflammation?
Th17
Deficiency in which molecule leads to autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome-1?
AIRE
What is the main role of Th1 cells in the immune response?
Activate macrophages and cytotoxic T cells
Which T cell type is involved in preventing autoimmunity and maintaining tolerance?
Treg
Where do T cells expressing TCRs with high affinity for self antigens undergo apoptosis or become regulatory T cells?
Thymic medulla
What is the main function of Th2 cells in the immune response?
Activate eosinophils and increase IgE production
Which molecule plays a crucial role in maintaining tolerance and preventing autoimmunity?
IL-10
Study Notes
- Translocation is a common type of chromosomal abnormality, specifically Robertsonian translocation.
- Occurs when long arms of two acrocentric chromosomes fuse at the centromere, resulting in loss of short arms.
- Balanced translocations usually do not cause any noticeable phenotype, as genetic material remains unchanged.
- Unbalanced translocations, which involve missing or extra genes, can lead to various conditions and developmental issues.
- Cri-du-chat syndrome is an example of an unbalanced translocation resulting from the deletion of a part of chromosome 5's short arm (5p−).
- Characterized by microcephaly, moderate to severe intellectual disability, high-pitched crying, epicanthal folds, and cardiac abnormalities, such as a ventricular septal defect (VSD).
- Williams syndrome is another example of an unbalanced translocation, caused by the deletion of a part of the long arm of chromosome 7 (7q−).
- Features include distinctive "elfin" facies, intellectual disability, well-developed verbal skills, hypercalcemia, extreme friendliness towards strangers, and absorbed cardiovascular problems, such as supravalvular aortic stenosis and renal artery stenosis.
- Essential fatty acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, are crucial nutrients that cannot be synthesized in the body.
- Hexokinase and glucokinase are enzymes responsible for converting glucose into glucose-6-phosphate, with different locations, affinities, and induced effects.
- Hexokinase is located in most tissues except the liver and pancreatic β cells.
- Glucokinase is mainly found in the liver and pancreatic β cells.
- Glycolysis is a metabolic process converting glucose into pyruvate, yielding ATP and NADH.
- Regulated by glucose-6-phosphate, which can inhibit or activate hexokinase and glucokinase.
- Amino acid metabolism and transport play a significant role in the body.
- Alanine is a critical player in the transfer of ammonia from muscle to the liver through the Cahill cycle.
- McArdle disease (type V) affects muscle glycogen metabolism, leading to painful muscle cramps, myoglobinuria, and arrhythmias during strenuous exercise.
- Lysosomal storage diseases result from deficiencies in lysosomal enzymes and the accumulation of abnormal metabolic products.
- Various diseases, such as Tay-Sachs, Niemann-Pick, and some forms of Gaucher disease, are examples of lysosomal storage diseases.
- Immunology is the study of the immune system, including cellular components and their functions.
- T cells are essential components of the immune system, differentiating from T cell precursors in the bone marrow and thymus.
- Thymus is crucial for the selection, maturation, and survival of T cells.
- Double-positive T cells (CD4+/CD8+) expressing TCRs capable of binding selfMHC on cortical epithelial cells survive, whereas those with high affinity for self antigens undergo apoptosis or become regulatory T cells.
- Macrophages and T cells interact through various cytokines and chemokines, leading to the activation and killing of microbes.
Test your knowledge on the urea cycle pathway, which is responsible for eliminating toxic ammonia from the body. Identify the key compounds and enzymes involved in this crucial metabolic process.
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