Indus Valley Civilization

UPSC Prelims Crash Course Features

• A 3-month free crash course available for UPSC Prelims 2021
• The course started 17th March and runs until 20th June
• Full coverage of the IAS (UPSC CSE) Prelims syllabus is provided
• Five full-length mock tests are available
• Faculties who have cleared Prelims and Mains exams multiple times teach the course
• The teaching faculties have many years of experience
• Static and dynamic (current affairs) portions focused on IAS (UPSC CSE) Prelims are covered
• Study material and notes are available on a Telegram channel
• Doubt clearing sessions are held every Sunday
• This course includes CSAT

Faculty Details

• Sourabh Jain: History faculty member, UPSC 2018, 2019 Interview, and highest score in prelims with 120
• Mohit Agarwal: Economics faculty member, UPSC 2018, 2019 Interview and UPSC 2020 Mains
• Yashovardhan Mishra: Geography and environment faculty member, UPSC 2017, 2019 Mains with Geography (optional)
• Siddhartha Kumar: Polity faculty member, UPSC 2019 Interview, UPSC 2014, 2016, 2017 Mains and twice over 130+ in prelims
• Rajni Jha: Has 5 years of experience teaching GS for UPSC
• Himanshu Gajendra: Has 5 years of experience teaching CSAT

Geographical Extent and Timeline

• The Harappan civilization was discovered in 1920-21
• The discovery followed the excavations by R.D. Banerjee at Mohenjodaro, and D.R. Salini at Harappa
• The remains were found in the Indus Valley, hence the name Indus Civilization
• The focus of the Harappan Civilization was the Saraswati River and its tributaries
• The Saraswati flowed between the Indus and the Ganga
• Some scholars call it the Indus-Saraswati civilization
• Harappa was the first site of this unique culture, the civilization is dated 2600 to 1900 BCE
• There were earlier and later cultures (Early and Late Harappan) in the same area
• The Harappan civilization is sometimes called the Mature Harappan Culture
• Early Harappan Phase was 3500 - 2600 BC
• Mature Harappan Phase was 2600 - 1900 BC
• Late Harappan Phase was 1900 - 1300 BC
• Information known only from Archaeology
• It was the largest in area compared to contemporary civilizations
• Indus/Harappan Civilization was older and more developed than Chalcolithic Culture
• Harappa was first discovered in 1921 at the modern site of Harappa, Pakistan
• Harappan culture arose in Pb/Sindh/Baluchistan/GJ/RJ/Western UP
• Over 250 Harappan sites, only six cities are most important
• Key sites include Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Chanhu-daro, Lothal (GJ), Kalibangan (RJ), and Banwali (HR)
• Kalibangan and Banwali existed in Pre-Harappan and Harappan Phases
• Sutkagendor and Surkotada were Mature Phase sites
• Rangpur and Rojdi (GJ) were Later Harappan Phase sites

Town Planning and Structures

• The Harappans used a system of town planning
• Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro both had a Citadel, with a possible ruling class
• Citadels were higher and smaller in the West
• The lower city was larger with brick houses where common people lived in the East
• A grid system of houses and streets was in place
• Cities were divided into blocks with roads cutting at right angles
• Dholavira and Banavali only has a single walled mound
• The mound was divided into three or four walled sectors
• Entrances through gateways
• Lothal had no fortification
• No windows in the walls along the ground level for privacy
• Some houses had stairs indicating they were double-storied

Mohenjo-Daro's Great Bath

• A tank existed on the Citadel next to side rooms for changing clothes
• The floor was made of burnt bricks with plaster coating
• A layer of tar made it watertight
• It served ritual bathing

Granary

• The largest building was a Granary (45.71 m x 15.23 m) in Mohenjo-Daro
• The Harappa Citadel had six granaries (15.23 m X 6.09 m)
• Harappa had Labour Rooms and Working Floors
• Kalibanagan had Granaries
• Use of burnt bricks was a distinct feature

Drainage System

• Every house had a courtyard, bathroom, and well
• Streets had covered drains equipped with manholes
• The residents had an attention to Health and Cleanliness

Agriculture

• Indus Regions had lower rainfall and were an arid area
• The region was fertile in ancient times, allowing for more natural vegetation
• Over time, grazing, agriculture, and fuel supply destroyed vegetation
• Annual flooding was important for fertility
• Wheat, barley, peas, and pulses were harvested
• No hoe or ploughshare have been found, but furrows were discovered at Kalibangan
• Wooden ploughshares used by Harappans
• Gabarbands (small dams) for water
• Water harvesting was practiced
• Sufficient food grain for people and town people
• Earliest to grow cotton, which the Greeks called SINDON
• Surplus agriculture allowed for barter trade
• Maize wasn't harvested
• Traces of a canal were found in Shortughai, Afghanistan

Domestication of Animals

• On large scale, there were oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep, pigs, dogs, and cats
• Camels and asses were beasts of burden
• Horses are questionable with doubtful terracotta figures coming from Lothal, but remains found at Surkotada
• Harappan people produced rice and domesticated elephants in GJ

Technology and Craft

• The civilization belonged to the Bronze Age (no iron)
• Many stone tools and implements were also used
• Bronze was made by mixing tin with copper
• Copper came from Khetri (RJ) and Baluchistan
• Tin came from Afghanistan and Hazaribagh (Bihar)
• A small percentage of tin was used
• Bronzesmiths, weavers, brick layers, masons, and boat makers all existed
• Seal making and terracotta were common
• Goldsmiths worked with gold, silver, and precious stone
• Gold and silver came from Afghanistan, and PS from South India
• Beadmaking and pottery were common

Faience

• Faience is a material that is artificially produced
• A gum was used to shape sand/powdered quartz into an object
• The objects were glazed, resulting in a shiny, glassy surface
• The glaze's colours were usually blue or sea green
• Faience was used to make beads, bangles, earrings, and tiny vessels

Trade

• There was a lack of raw material in Harappan cities
• No idea of currency, only barter trade
• Finished goods and food grain traded using boats and bullock carts
• Commercial links with RJ/Afghanistan/Iran
• Harappan seals found in Mesopotamia indicated trade relations with MELUHA
• Two intermediate trading stations: Dilmun and Makan, both in Bahrain and the Persian Gulf (Oman)
• Lothal was the key center for making objects out of stone/shell/metal
• Nageshwar and Balakot was for shells
• Shortughai, Afghanistan was for lapis lazuli
• Chanhudaro was devoted to craft production

Chanhudaro

• Bead making
• Sheel cutting
• Metal working
• Seal making
• Weight making

Political Organisation

• No clear political system known
• There were no temples
• No religious structure except Great Bath
• Maybe ruled by Merchant class
• Peaceful culture with no weapons
• The Harappan society was divided into three sections including a well-to-do middle class, and a weaker section
• The elite class was associated with the Citadel
• The weaker section occupied the lower town (generally fortified)

Religious Practices

• Terracotta figurines of Mother Goddess
• Goddess of Earth
• Plant growing from Embryo
• Matriarchal society

Male Deity

• Represented on a Seal
• In yogi position
• Surrounded by Elephant, Tiger, Rhino, and Buffalo
• Two deers at the feet
• Traditional image of Pashupati Mahadeva
• Prevalence of Phallus Worship
• Symbols of Phallus and Female sex organs were found

Tree and Animal Worship

• Worship of Pipal Tree
• Animals were also worshipped
• Humped Bull was also worshiped
• Worship Gods in the form of Trees/Animals/Human Beings but no temple
• Amulets existed in large numbers
• Practiced Yoga
• A large number of 'fire-altars' were found in Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Haryana
• A number of 'fire-altars' have been found at Kalibangan, Lothal, and Banawali

Weight and Measures

• Used for trading and other transactions
• Used 16 or its multiples (16/32/64 etc)
• 16 annas = 1 rupee
• Knew art of measurement with sticks and measured marks

Harappan Pottery

• Decorated with design of Trees and circles
• Images of men
• Red and Black pottery
• Perforated potteries

Ornaments

• Made from precious metals, gemstones, bones, and baked clay
• Both men and women wore necklaces, fillets, armlets and finger rings
• Girdles, earrings, and anklets were worn only by women
• Conscious of fashion including different styles of hair and beard

Seals

• Greatest artistic creations
• Mostly made of Steatite
• 2000 seals found
• Short inscription with picture of One horned Bull/ Buffalo / Tiger/Rhino/Goat/elephant
• No Cow Picture
• The most common depiction is the unicorn
• In later period, some animal figures as vehicles of Hindu deities

Seals

• The bull of Siva
• The lion of Durga
• The buffalo of Yama
• The elephant of Indra
• While most seals are square, triangular, rectangular and circular seals were also used
• Seals made from agate, chert, copper, faience and terracotta have also been found
• Copper, gold and ivory seals
• The Swastika, a sacred symbol with Hindus, Buddhists and Jaina has been depicted on seals, painting and graffiti

Harappan Script

• Invented art of writing, not deciphered yet
• Did not write long inscriptions
• Mostly recorded on seals (limited words)
• 250 - 400 pictographs
• Script was not alphabetical
• Indigenous script with no connections to Western Asia
• Knowledge of scripts for records of private property and keeping accounts
• It was written mostly from right to left, but bidirectional writing exists.

Images

• Metal Image (Dancing Girl), the world's oldest bronze sculpture
• The bronze statues were made using "lost wax technique”/"Cire Perdue.”
• There was a Bearded Priest made of steatite

Terracotta Figurine

• Terracotta made from fire-baked earthen clay
• Toys and objects of worship
• Seals and Images - Manufactured with great skill
• Terracotta Figurines are crude/unsophisticated
• Gap between classes
• Poor in artistic work made of Stone

Harappa Site

• Present Pakistan on the bank of River Ravi
• Two rows of six granaries with a big platform
• Stone symbol of lingam and yoni
• Mother goddess figure
• Wheat and barley in wooden mortar
• Dice, copper scale, and mirror
• Sculpture of dog chasing a deer in bronze metal
• Red sand stone male torso
• Two cemeteries: R. 37 (Harappan Period), and “H” (Late/Post-Harappan Periods)

Mohenjo-daro Site

• Present-day Pakistan on the River Indus
• The citadel, the great bath, the great granary
• Post cremation burial
• Sculpture of bearded priest
• Bronze statue of the Dancing Girl
• Pashupati seal was also found

Dholavira Site

• Gujarat
• Giant water reservoir
• Unique water harnessing system
• Stadium
• Dams and embankments
• Inscription comprising 10 large-sized signs (like an advertisement board)

Lothal

• Located in Gujarat and called the Manchester of Indus Valley Civilization
• A key site for naval trade, dockyard
• Rice husk, fire altars, painted jar
• Modern-day chess
• Terracotta figure of horse and ship
• Instruments for measuring 45, 90 and 180-degree angles
• Twin Burial

Rakhigarhi Site

• Haryana
• Largest site of Indus Valley civilization
• Granary, cemetery, drains, terracotta bricks

Ropar Site

• On the banks of Sutlej in Punjab, India
• Dog buried with human oval pit burials
• Copper axe was found

Balathal and Kalibangan Site

• Rajasthan
• Bangle factory
• Toy carts
• Bones of camel
• Decorated bricks
• Citadel and lower town
• Fire altar

Surkotada Site

• Gujarat
• First findings of horse bones

Banawali Site

• Haryana
• On the dried-up Saraswati river
• Toy plough
• Barley grains
• Lapis lazuli
• Fire altars oval shaped settlement
• Only city with radial streets

Alamgirpur Site

• Meerut, Uttar Pradesh, on the banks of Yamuna
• Easternmost site of IVC
• Broken blade made of copper
• Ceramic items and impression of a cloth on a trough

Mehrgarh Site

• Located in Pakistan
• Precursor to Indus Valley Civilization
• Pottery, copper tools were found

End of Harappan civilization

• Around 1750 BC, Harappa and MJ disappeared
• The origin and end are not clear
• Indigenous culture
• Expansion of desert
• Decreased fertility
• Sudden upliftment/subsidence of land (flood)
• Shifting/drying up of Rivers
• Deforestation
• Destroyed by Aryans
• Later phase involved exotic tools and pottery with slow percolation of new people