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Questions and Answers
What are the main components of the upper respiratory tract?
What are the main components of the upper respiratory tract?
Which statement about the trachea is correct?
Which statement about the trachea is correct?
What role does the diaphragm play in respiration?
What role does the diaphragm play in respiration?
Which process characterizes expiration at rest?
Which process characterizes expiration at rest?
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What is the purpose of the Heimlich maneuver?
What is the purpose of the Heimlich maneuver?
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What is the primary function of the respiratory zone?
What is the primary function of the respiratory zone?
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Which structure is part of the upper airways?
Which structure is part of the upper airways?
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What is the role of goblet cells in the respiratory system?
What is the role of goblet cells in the respiratory system?
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What effect does smoking have on ciliary movement?
What effect does smoking have on ciliary movement?
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What is the consequence of cystic fibrosis on respiratory secretions?
What is the consequence of cystic fibrosis on respiratory secretions?
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Which of the following structures does NOT supply blood to the respiratory zone?
Which of the following structures does NOT supply blood to the respiratory zone?
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Approximately how many capillaries are found per alveolus?
Approximately how many capillaries are found per alveolus?
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Which component plays a key role in the mucociliary escalator?
Which component plays a key role in the mucociliary escalator?
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What is the main function of pulmonary surfactant?
What is the main function of pulmonary surfactant?
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Which condition is characterized by the collapse of alveoli due to lack of surfactant?
Which condition is characterized by the collapse of alveoli due to lack of surfactant?
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What is the primary structural consideration for airway resistance?
What is the primary structural consideration for airway resistance?
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Which statement best describes the process of expiration?
Which statement best describes the process of expiration?
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What does compliance in the respiratory system represent?
What does compliance in the respiratory system represent?
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How many alveoli are estimated to be present in one lung?
How many alveoli are estimated to be present in one lung?
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Which pressure is typically negative during inspiration?
Which pressure is typically negative during inspiration?
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What is the primary way oxygen is carried in the blood?
What is the primary way oxygen is carried in the blood?
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What primarily drives the inspiration process?
What primarily drives the inspiration process?
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What is the main factor affecting gas diffusion through the respiratory membrane?
What is the main factor affecting gas diffusion through the respiratory membrane?
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What type of disease is asthma classified as?
What type of disease is asthma classified as?
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What effect does increased airway resistance have on expiration compared to inspiration?
What effect does increased airway resistance have on expiration compared to inspiration?
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What is the effect of gravity on pulmonary circulation?
What is the effect of gravity on pulmonary circulation?
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How is carbon dioxide primarily transported in the blood?
How is carbon dioxide primarily transported in the blood?
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What characterizes pulmonary hypertension compared to normal pulmonary circulation?
What characterizes pulmonary hypertension compared to normal pulmonary circulation?
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Which condition is more likely to remain normal before hypoxia occurs?
Which condition is more likely to remain normal before hypoxia occurs?
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What is a potential consequence of anemia on oxygen transport?
What is a potential consequence of anemia on oxygen transport?
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What effect does the Bohr effect have on oxygen transport?
What effect does the Bohr effect have on oxygen transport?
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Which structure primarily innervates the diaphragm?
Which structure primarily innervates the diaphragm?
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What is the strongest chemical stimulus for alveolar ventilation?
What is the strongest chemical stimulus for alveolar ventilation?
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Where is the respiratory center located in the brain?
Where is the respiratory center located in the brain?
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Which part of the autonomic nervous system is primarily responsible for the 'fight or flight' response?
Which part of the autonomic nervous system is primarily responsible for the 'fight or flight' response?
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What effect do H+ ions have on the respiratory system?
What effect do H+ ions have on the respiratory system?
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Study Notes
Upper & Lower Respiratory Tract
- The upper respiratory tract consists of the nose, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, and pharynx.
- The lower respiratory tract consists of the larynx, trachea, bronchial tree, and lungs.
- URI stands for Upper Respiratory Infection.
Conducting & Respiratory Zones
- Conducting Zone: Also called the dead space, which represents the areas of the respiratory system where gas exchange does not occur.
- Respiratory Zone: Where gas exchange takes place.
Trachea & Bronchial Tree
- The trachea is a cylindrical tube made of C-shaped hyaline cartilage, lined with a ciliated mucous membrane containing many goblet cells.
- The bronchial tree branches into primary bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli.
- Alveoli are tiny air sacs where gas exchange occurs.
- Cartilage provides support and structure, smooth muscle controls air flow, and ciliated epithelium moves mucus.
Pleura & Pleural Cavity
- The pleura is a membrane that surrounds the lungs.
- The pleural cavity is the space between the lungs and the thoracic wall.
- Intrapleural fluid fills the pleural cavity.
- Pneumothorax is a condition where air enters the pleural cavity causing the lung to collapse.
Diaphragm & Respiration
- The diaphragm is the primary respiratory muscle and is innervated by phrenic nerves (C3-C5).
- Injury above C3 can be fatal because it disrupts diaphragm function.
- Inspiration is an active process that involves contraction of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles, overcoming elastic recoil and surface tension.
- Expiration is a passive process due to elastic recoil of the lungs.
- Forced respiration involves active contraction of the abdominal muscles.
Heimlich Maneuver
- The Heimlich maneuver increases alveolar pressure by compressing the thoracic cavity, forcing foreign objects out of the airways.
Alveoli
- Alveoli are the functional units of the respiratory system.
- Alveolar-capillary unit: site of gas exchange.
- Surface area for gas exchange: ~75 m2.
- Alveolar pores allow for air to move between alveoli, maintaining pressure and ventilation.
Pulmonary Surfactant
- Type 2 alveolar cells produce pulmonary surfactant.
- Pulmonary surfactant is a phospholipid that reduces surface tension in the alveoli, increasing compliance and stability.
- Lack of surfactant can lead to Infant Respiratory Distress Syndrome.
Respiration Mechanics
- Negative pleural pressure helps draw air into the lungs during inspiration.
- Elastic recoil helps expel air during expiration.
- Airway resistance can impede airflow.
Obstructive & Restrictive Pulmonary Diseases
- Obstructive pulmonary diseases are characterized by airflow obstruction (e.g., asthma, emphysema, COPD).
- Restrictive pulmonary diseases are characterized by reduced lung volume (e.g., fibrosis).
Ventilation
- Ventilation refers to the movement of air into and out of the lungs.
- Inspiratory gas is humidified and warmed to body temperature.
- Gas movement is determined by partial pressure gradients.
- Gravity affects pulmonary air distribution.
Gas Diffusion & Arterial Blood Gas Analysis
- Gas diffusion occurs across the alveolar-capillary membrane, driven by partial pressure gradients.
- Arterial blood gas analysis (ABG) measures the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in arterial blood, providing information on respiratory and acid-base status.
Pulmonary Circulation
- Pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs.
- Pulmonary hypertension refers to high blood pressure in the pulmonary circulation.
- Bronchial arteries supply oxygen to the tissues of the lungs.
Ventilation-Perfusion Ratio (VQ Ratio)
- Matching of ventilation and perfusion maintains efficient gas exchange.
- Mismatching of ventilation and perfusion can lead to decreased gas exchange.
Oxygen Transport
-
Oxygen is transported in the blood in two ways:
- Dissolved in plasma: ~1.5%
- Bound to hemoglobin: ~98.5%
- Factors that affect oxygen transport: Anemia, hemoglobinopathy, carbon monoxide intoxication.
- Cyanosis is a bluish discoloration of the skin due to low oxygen levels in the blood.
Oxyhemoglobin Dissociation Curve
- Hemoglobin affinity for oxygen changes based on partial pressure of oxygen, carbon dioxide, pH, and temperature.
Carbon Dioxide Transport
-
Carbon Dioxide is transported in the blood in three ways:
- Dissolved in plasma
- Bound to hemoglobin
- As bicarbonate
- Hypoxia: Low oxygen levels in the blood.
- Hypercapnea: High carbon dioxide levels in the blood.
Respiration Regulation
- Respiratory rhythm is automatically controlled by the respiratory center.
- Somatic nerve impulses innervate respiratory muscles, allowing for voluntary and involuntary control.
- Respiratory Center: Located in the medulla oblongata and pons.
Chemoreceptors
- Chemoreceptors monitor blood gas levels and regulate ventilation.
- Central chemoreceptors: Located in the medulla oblongata and are sensitive to pH changes in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
- Peripheral chemoreceptors: Located in the carotid and aortic bodies and are sensitive to changes in oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen ion concentrations in arterial blood.
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Description
Explore the essentials of the upper and lower respiratory tracts, including key structures like the trachea, bronchial tree, and alveoli. Understand the roles of conducting and respiratory zones, as well as the function of pleura and pleural cavities in respiration.
