Pharmacology

Anticholinesterase Toxicity

• Inhibits the breakdown of acetylcholine, leading to an accumulation of acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction and cholinergic synapses.

Salicylate Toxicity

• Sodium bicarbonate is used to alkalize urine in salicylate toxicity.

Benzodiazepine Toxicity

• Benzodiazepines primarily act by enhancing the inhibitory effects of GABA, resulting in CNS depression.

Tricyclic Antidepressant Toxicity

• Sodium bicarbonate is used to stabilize cardiac cell membranes in tricyclic antidepressant toxicity.

Methanol Toxicity

• Methanol is metabolized to formic acid, which is highly toxic to the body, leading to metabolic acidosis and optic nerve damage.

Copper Toxicity

• Penicillamine is used to chelate copper in copper toxicity.

Arsenic Toxicity

• Arsenic disrupts cellular metabolism by interfering with enzymes involved in energy production.

Opioid Toxicity

• Naloxone is used to reverse opioid toxicity by acting as an opioid receptor antagonist.

Carbon Monoxide Toxicity

• Carbon monoxide binds to hemoglobin with a higher affinity than oxygen, leading to hypoxia.

Iron Toxicity

• Deferoxamine is used to chelate iron in iron toxicity.

Enzyme Function

• Enzymes accelerate chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy required for the reaction to occur.

Enzymology

• Enzymology is the study of the rate of reactions catalyzed by enzymes.

Non-Competitive Inhibition

• Allosteric inhibition occurs when a ligand interacts with a site other than the binding site of an enzyme, altering enzyme activity.

Structural Proteins

• Structural proteins, such as collagen and keratin, are responsible for maintaining the structural integrity of a cell.

Receptor Types

• Receptors involved in the transmission of external stimuli into a signal are called ionotropic receptors.

Maximum Effect

• The maximum effect that can be produced by a ligand is known as the efficacy.

Ligand-Biomolecule Complex

• A ligand that forms a complex with a biomolecule to cause an effect is called a modulator.

Drug Concentration

• The concentration of a drug required to produce an effect is called the potency.

Competitive Inhibitor

• A competitive inhibitor binds to the same site as an agonist, preventing the agonist from binding.

Dose-Response Curve

• A dose-response curve is a graph that shows the relationship between the dose of a drug and its effect.

Cyanide Toxicity

• Cyanide inhibits cellular respiration by binding to cytochrome oxidase, preventing electron transport and ATP production.

Scombroid Toxin Mechanism

• Scombroid toxin, produced by bacteria in spoiled fish, causes histamine accumulation, leading to a histamine-induced allergic reaction.

Scombroid Toxin Treatment

• Treatment for scombroid toxin involves managing symptoms with antihistamines.

Tetrodotoxin Effect

• Tetrodotoxin blocks sodium channels in nerve membranes, preventing the transmission of nerve impulses.

Ciguatoxin Mechanism

• Ciguatoxin, produced by algae and accumulated in fish, disrupts sodium channels in nerve cells, leading to neurological and gastrointestinal symptoms.

Ciguatoxin Treatment

• Treatment for ciguatoxin is supportive, focusing on managing symptoms.

Sodium Nitrites and Hemoglobin

• Sodium nitrites convert hemoglobin to methemoglobin, which can bind to cyanide, reducing cyanide's toxicity.

Cyanide Mechanism of Action

• Cyanide binds to cytochrome oxidase, an enzyme involved in oxidative phosphorylation, impairing cellular respiration and causing rapid cell death.

Age and Pharmacokinetics

• Age can impact pharmacokinetics, often leading to decreased metabolism and increased drug half-life in older patients.

BioRender.com

• BioRender.com is an online platform that provides a collection of pre-made and customizable biological illustrations, diagrams, and icons for scientific communication.