BRITAIN FROM THE NINETEENTH CENTURY TO NOW

68 Questions

What are the two main assumptions of the Industrial Revolution concept?

It was a development from a pre-industrial to an industrial society, and a fundamental break with the past

What was the primary focus of the Agricultural Revolution in the late 17th and 18th centuries in England?

To enclosure small individual parcels of land into larger fields

How did the build-up of an Empire contribute to the Industrial Revolution in Britain?

It helped accumulate capital for investment in industrial production

What was the source of energy in the early stages of the Industrial Revolution?

Water

What is the cultural component that contributed to the Industrial Revolution?

The focus on commerce and trade

Who invented the spinning jenny?

Hargreaves

What was the time period during which the Industrial Revolution took place in Britain?

From 1780 to 1830

What was the significance of the 'triangular' trade with the Americas?

It contributed to the accumulation of capital for industrial investment

What was the main focus of the initial phase of industrialization during the Industrial Revolution?

Textile industry

What was the main source of energy during the 'age of iron'?

Coal

Which region emerged as a centre for coal production during the Industrial Revolution?

Wales

What led to the end of Britain's century of industrial dominance?

The advent of World War I

What was a major social consequence of industrialization during the Industrial Revolution?

Appalling living conditions for the new working classes

What position did Britain achieve during the Industrial Revolution?

The World's pre-eminent Great Power

What was the peak of British pre-eminence during the Industrial Revolution?

The 1850s and 1860s

What was a major consequence of the unification of Germany in 1871?

A race for colonies among European Great Powers

What was the result of the British Empire by the end of the century?

It covered a quarter of the Earth's land mass and contained about 1/5 of the world's population

What was the result of demands for political reform in the late 18th century?

Government repression and opposition

What was the main consequence of the Great Reform Act of 1832?

The electorate increased from about 14% to 20% of adult males

Who was the mastermind behind the Second Reform Act of 1867?

Benjamin Disraeli

What was the result of the party-political and tactical manoeuvrings within Parliament during the second half of the 19th century?

The Second Reform Act of 1867

What was the result of the Redistribution of Seats Act, 1885?

The establishment of constituencies of roughly equal size

What was Queen Victoria's reign roughly coincided with?

The emergence of industrialised Britain and Britain's hegemonic position in the world

What was the 'Woman Question' in the Victorian Age?

Separate roles for men and women

What was the result of the unification of Germany in 1871?

The Great Power rivalry in Europe intensified

What was the consequence of the naval race between Britain and Germany?

An arms race began across all of Europe

What was the purpose of the Schlieffen plan?

To avoid a two-front war

What was the result of the forming of alliances in Europe before World War I?

A climate of hostility and insecurity

What was the event that triggered World War I?

The assassination of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne

What was the outcome of the Schlieffen plan?

It bogged down in trench-warfare on the western front

What was the main purpose of the British blockade during World War I?

To prevent Germany from trading with other countries

What event marked the turning point in the war in favor of the Allies?

The entry of the USA into the war

What was the outcome of the Hundred Days Offensive?

The German army was defeated and the war was over

What was the main goal of the Peace of Versailles?

To punish Germany for causing the war

What was the consequence of the immense costs of the war for Britain?

Britain went from being a creditor to a debtor

What was the consequence of the war for the British Empire?

The Empire reached its greatest expansion in the 1920s

What was the reaction to the war and the militarism that led to it?

A focus on international cooperation and armament control

What was the main consequence of the appeasement policy towards Nazi Germany?

The Munich agreement and the seizure of the Sudetenland

What event in March 1939 led to the abandoning of the policy of appeasement?

Hitler's occupation of the rest of Czechoslovakia

What was the result of the British campaign in Norway in 1940?

Unsuccessful land-campaign, with many German warships sunk

What was the significance of the evacuation of British Expeditionary Force (BEF) from Dunkirk?

A successful rescue of over 300,000 men

What was the main reason for the British victory in the Battle of Britain?

British advantage in fighting over home ground

What event in June 1941 lifted pressure on Britain?

German invasion of the Soviet Union

What was the significance of the El Alamein battle in 1942?

A symbolic victory that tied up significant German troops

What was the outcome of the German defeat at Stalingrad in 1943?

The outcome of the war was more or less given

What was the significance of the D-Day landings in Normandy?

The opening of the Western Front

What was the significance of the fall of Singapore in 1942?

A crushing defeat for British forces

What led to Japan's quick surrender in August 1945?

The American atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki

What was the consequence of Britain's unsuccessful attempt to maintain a separate nuclear deterrent?

Britain had to rely on American technology

What was the outcome of the Suez Crisis for Britain?

Britain's status as an independent great power ended

What was the main reason for the decline of British industries in the 1950s and 1960s?

The failure to invest in new equipment and technology

What was the result of the 'Winter of Discontent' in 1978-79?

A period of industrial action and conflict

What was the outcome of Britain's attempt to continue trade relations with former colonies through the Commonwealth?

It gradually lost importance as British trade shifted to the EEC

What was the social consequence of the decline of traditional heavy industries?

Rising unemployment and social problems

What was the impact of World War 2 on social cohesion?

It forged an unprecedented cross-class solidarity

Why did British manufacturers struggle with standards of quality?

Due to the old equipment and facilities

What was the result of Britain's decision to join the European Economic Community (EEC)?

Britain's trade shifted towards the EEC

What was the consequence of the 'feel-good attitude' after the war?

British industries flourished and became competitive

What was the outcome of the general election of 1945 in Britain?

Landslide victory for the Labour party

What was the main reason for Churchill being thrown out of office in 1945?

He was perceived as the 'right man' for war, but not for peace

What was the main goal of the Labour party's economic planning in post-war Britain?

To implement Keynesian economics and stimulate economic growth

What was the main feature of the 'Era of Consensus' in British politics from 1945 to roughly 1970?

Agreement between the two parties on major policy issues

What was the primary focus of the British government's foreign policy in the immediate post-war period?

Retaining great power status alongside the USA and Soviet Union

What was the main goal of the National Insurance Act of 1946?

To provide unemployment benefits to those in need

What was the main feature of the National Health Service introduced in 1948?

'Free' healthcare for everyone, regardless of income

What was the result of the nationalization of industries and businesses in post-war Britain?

Transfer of ownership from private to communal ownership

Who was the leader of the Labour party that implemented the comprehensive welfare state and nationalization policies?

Clement Attlee

What was the 'mixed economy' referred to in the context of post-war Britain?

State-owned enterprises alongside private businesses

Study Notes

The Nineteenth Century

The Industrial Revolution:
- Transformation from a pre-industrial to an industrial society
- Fundamentally changed society and economy
- Took place in Britain from 1780 to 1830
Reasons for the Industrial Revolution in Britain:
- Availability of labor due to the Agricultural Revolution
- Availability of capital for investment in industrial production
- Availability of technology and energy (water and coal)
- Cultural component: developing a capitalist culture

The Industrial Revolution: Three Phases

1780-1830: Initial phase, focusing on textiles, cotton, and iron
1830-1870: Emphasis on iron production, peak of Britain's industrial might
1870-1914: Late industrial age, diversification of industrial production

The "Condition-of-England" question:
- Debate about whether industrialisation meant progress or decline
- Appalling living conditions for the working class in cities
- Child labor and long working hours were common
- Improved living standards from the 1850s onwards

Consequences for Britain's Position in the World

Industrial Revolution led to Britain becoming a Great Power
Pax Britannica: Britain's dominance in the world, protected by the Royal Navy
Peak of British pre-eminence was in the 1850s and 1860s

Political and Constitutional Reform in the 19th Century

Demands for reform began in the 1760s, influenced by the French Revolution
Reform Acts of 1832, 1867, and 1884:
- Abolished rotten boroughs and redistributed seats
- Increased the electorate from 14% to 60% of adult males
- Redressed imbalances in national distribution of seats
Key figures: William Gladstone and Benjamin Disraeli

Victorian Age and the "Woman Question"

Queen Victoria reigned from 1837 to 1901
The "Victorians": Conservative or forward-looking and progressive?
The "Woman Question":
- Separate roles for men and women or equality between sexes?
- The Suffragettes campaigned for women's right to vote

World War I and II

Build-up to armed conflict, 1870-1914:
- Great power rivalry in Europe
- Race for colonies and an arms race
- Growing nationalism and militarism
World War I, 1914-1918:
- Tense situation escalated into global conflict
- Germany's Schlieffen plan and the war of attrition
- War at sea and the blockade of Germany
- Aftermath: Treaty of Versailles and reparatory payments
World War II, 1939-1945:
- Europe: German aggression, appeasement, and the Phoney War
- Battle of Britain, evacuation of Dunkirk, and the Blitz
- Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor and the US entry into the war
- D-Day landings, Soviet victory on the Eastern Front, and German defeat
Post-war Britain:
- Labour party's landslide victory in 1945
- Building the Welfare State and economic planning
- Nationalisation of key industries### Era of Consensus
Agreement between Conservatives and Labour on main policies from 1945 to roughly 1970
Conservatives accepted the Welfare State, full employment, mixed economy, and decolonisation
Labour accepted social democracy and gradual reforms, giving up socialism

Governments after 1945

Labour: Attlee (1945-51), Wilson (1964-70, 1974-76), Callaghan (1976-79)
Conservative: Churchill (1951-55), Eden (1955-56), Macmillan (1957-63), Douglas-Home (1963-64), Heath (1970-74), Thatcher (1979-90), Major (1990-97)
Coalition: Cameron (2010-2015), Cameron (2015-2016), May (2016-2019), Johnson (2019-2022), Truss (2022), Sunak (2022)

Foreign Relations

Victorious in WWII, one of the 'Big Three'
Aimed to retain great power status alongside the USA and Soviet Union
Massive military expenditure, including a large standing army and nuclear deterrent
'Special relationship' with America, joining and supporting the US in the Cold War
Founding member of NATO
Failed to maintain independence from US support

Decolonisation

1947: British India gained independence, divided into Hindu India and Muslim Pakistan
1956: Suez Crisis, British attempt to regain control over the Suez Canal failed
2nd stage of decolonisation: most of the British Empire was gradually liquidated, replaced by the Commonwealth
Britain reduced to her 'island home'

Economic Development

Feel-good attitude after WWII, industries less damaged than in continental Europe
British industries did well in the 1950s, but underlying structural problems not addressed
From the late 1950s, British industry gradually sank into crisis, losing competitiveness
French referred to Britain as the 'Sick Man of Europe' by the 1970s
Industry was largely intact after the war, but became obsolete
Complacency towards renewal, poor industrial relations, and struggles with quality control contributed to decline

Economic problems led to social problems: decline of traditional heavy industries, rising unemployment, and social problems
Growth in the service sector led to increasing wealth for the middle classes, emergence of consumer society
Impact of WWII:
- Removed some class antagonism, forged cross-class solidarity for the post-war Welfare State
- Unleashed forces that undermined social cohesion, led to individualism, consumerism, and fragmentation
Emergence of a multicultural society in Britain through large-scale immigration from former colonies
By 2005, 4 million or 7% of the British population described themselves as belonging to a 'non-white ethnic group'

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