Ancient Civilizations: Egypt and Civilization Development

Civilization

• A society or place reaches an advanced stage of social development and organization
• Characteristics: surplus of food and irrigation, cities and government, division of labor, calendar, and writing system

Ancient Egypt: Geography

• Nile River: transport system, flooded every year with the same amount of water at the same time
• Optimistic culture: believed in an afterlife that was generally positive
• Bosin Irrigation: allowed for a lot of food and production with minimal work
• 95% of Ancient Egypt was desert, with the Mediterranean Sea to the north

Sources about Ancient Egypt

• Stone Tablets and Papyrus: sources of information about Ancient Egypt
• Manetho and Herodotus: historians who wrote about Ancient Egypt
• Rosetta Stone: helped decipher ancient Egyptian writing

History of Ancient Egypt: Chronology

• Early Dynastic Period (3100 - 2686 BC): united Upper and Lower Egypt, established Memphis as the capital
• Old Kingdom (2686 - 2181 BC): built pyramids, had a centralized government, and a strong pharaoh
• 1st Intermediate Period: series of droughts, nobles fought over power, and 200 years of chaos
• Middle Kingdom (2040 - 1750 BC): distinctly different from the Old Kingdom, new pantheon with Amun, and expansion through conquest
• 2nd Intermediate Period: Hyksos conquered all of Egypt
• New Kingdom (1550 - 712 BC): Egypt became an empire, expanded through trade and military conquest

The Old Kingdom

• Pyramids: built by peasants, using levers, pulleys, and water power, for pharaohs who became gods upon death
• Famous Pyramids: Step Pyramid (Pharaoh Zoser/Djoser), Great Pyramid of Giza (Pharaoh Khufu), and the Sphinx (Pharaoh Khafre)

Old Kingdom: Religion, Writing, and the End

• Pantheon/Polytheism: many gods, including Ra, Osiris, Isis, and Set
• Maat: the concept of balance and order in the universe
• Writing: hieroglyphics, demotic, and hieratic scripts
• Divine kingship: pharaohs had the right to rule from the gods

Ancient Egyptian Government Structure

• Pharaoh: held absolute power, played key roles in religion, and was considered a god
• Vizier: chief minister who supervised the government
• Specific Departments: reported to the vizier about tax collection, farming, and irrigation
• Scribes: reported and carried out the vizier's instructions

Ancient Egyptian Social Hierarchy

• Pharaoh: the royal family
• Government officials: high priests, priestesses, and nobles
• Merchants, Scribes, and artisans: a small class
• Peasants and farmers: made up the largest group

The Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period

• New pantheon with Amun as the leader
• Conquest of new territories, but eventually, Egypt was conquered by the Hyksos
• Egyptians developed new weapons, retaking the land

The New Kingdom

• Egypt became an empire, expanding through trade and military conquest
• Hatsheput: first female pharaoh, expanded Egypt through trade
• Amarna Period: Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten) introduced monotheism, created a new god, Aten
• Akhenaten's changes: created a feared police force, built a new capital, Amarna
• After Akhenaten's death, his son Tut took over, erasing Akhenaten's actions

New Kingdom: Pharaohs

• Ramses II: one of the few great rulers, built many temples, and fought the Battle of Kadesh
• King Tut: married his sister, had a cleft palate and scoliosis, and died at 17 due to a broken leg leading to gangrene and death

Geography of Mesopotamia

• Part of the Fertile Crescent, Greek for "land between the rivers", referring to the Tigris and Euphrates rivers
• Unpredictable flooding led to a pessimistic society
• No natural boundaries made it a crossroads for Asia, Africa, and Europe

Society and Culture

• Polytheistic religion with violent and unpredictable gods
• Humans were created to serve the gods
• Writing: Cuneiform, with 600 symbols, invented around 3100 BC
• Social Structure:
  • Amelu: government officials, professional soldiers, and priests
  • Mushkins: working class
  • Slaves: largest class
• 2000 BC: Taxes were introduced, with a system where people could keep their earnings as long as they gave a cut to the government

Sumer (3300 - 1800 BC)

• City-states, each independent like its own country
• Run by Lugals or "Big Men"
• Achievements:
  • Invented the wheel
  • Developed a lunar calendar
  • Created farm tools like the plow
  • Wrote the Epic of Gilgamesh
• Indicates a culturally and technologically advanced civilization

Akkad (2300 - 2100 BC)

• Famous king: Sargon, who created an empire and conquered Sumerian cities
• Sargon's success was due to his superb military leadership, standing army, and archer corps
• Eventually, the civilization ended around the same time as the Old Kingdom of Egypt

Babylon (1894 - 539 BC)

• Combination of Sumerians and Akkadians through inter-marriage
• Adopted many Sumerian beliefs, including the House of Dust or Darkness
• Marduk: chief god, who defeated Tiamat (chaos)
• Epic of Gilgamesh was also adopted from Sumerian achievements
• Hammurabi's Code, a law code with "an eye for an eye" principle

Hittites (1600-1178 BC)

• Discovered iron

Assyrian Empire (1800 - 627 BC)

• Known as conquerors, with a meritocracy system where generals were chosen based on ability
• Brutal towards their people, with a worldview that the world would end if they stopped conquering
• Extended their empire beyond their roads

Neo-Babylonians (Chaldeans) (626 - 539 BC)

• Most important king: Nebuchadnezzar, who began as a successful general and eventually became king
• Known for the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and the Babylonian Exile of Jews

Phoenicians (1500 - 300 BC)

• A merchant power, not a military empire
• Achievements:
  • Developed a 22-symbol alphabet
  • Used Murex shellfish to create purple dye
  • May have circumnavigated the tip of Africa

Lydians (1200 BC - 600 AD)

• Introduced the concept of money, with the first coins made of gold and silver
• Barter system, with commodities having value
• King of Lydia introduced the concept of minted coins

Persian Empire (550 BC - 651 AD)

• Government led by a king, with a system of taxes and loyalty
• Treated their people better than other empires
• Built roads, including the Royal Road, and had a postal system
• Known for their army and empire-building
• Most of what we know about them comes from other writers, like Herodotus

Persian Rulers

• Cyrus the Great, who conquered Babylon and ended the Babylonian Exile
• Darius I, who extended the Persian Empire to Anatolia
• Xerxes I, who attacked the Greeks at Marathon and was famously defeated at Salamis

Prelude to Greco-Persian Wars

• Persia forbade slavery and had a system of government and religion
• Persia was not a terrible place to live, except for Greeks, who had too much pride
• Zoroastrianism, a monotheistic religion, was the first to introduce the concept of a devil-like figure

Hebrews (1000 BC - today)

• Founder: Abraham, who made a covenant with God
• Son: Isaac, who led to the Judeo-Christian world
• Son: Ishmael, who led to the Islamic world
• Moses, who led the Exodus out of Egypt
• Judaism:
  • Covenant with Yahweh
  • Torah, the holy book with the first five books of the Old Testament
  • The ten commandments, with the first four related to Yahweh and the last six related to self-restraint, human life, and family

Geography of India

• Rivers: Indus and Sarawati, flooded regularly twice a year, but not in the same amount
• Mountains: Himalayas and Hindu Kush, with the Himalayas being the "Home of the snow"
• Good aspects: protection, food
• Bad aspects: difficult to get through, unpredictable flooding

Indus River Valley Civilization

• Culture: known from archaeology, no Rosetta Stone to decipher language
• Cities: Harappa and Mohenjo Doro, with grid-like streets, multi-story structures, and natural air conditioning
• Drainage/sewer system, with the Great Bath being the largest building in the city
• Trading: seals found in Mesopotamia, cotton cloth, and peaceful people with little to no weapons
• End of civilization: violent death, possibly due to conquest, earthquake, or environmental disaster

Indo-Aryan Civilization

• Entered through Khyber Pass around 1800 BC
• Conquered the Dravidians, with a possible invasion
• Religous Text: Vedas, the most ancient text of Hinduism, written in sanskrit
• Aspects of Religion:
  • Nature gods and polytheism
  • Immortality based on rituals over morals
  • Cremation of the dead
  • Brahmins (priests) and no specific place of worship
  • Religous Epics: Mahabharata and Upanishads

Caste System

• Based on "Purusha"
• 5 castes:
  • Brahmins (mouth): priests
  • Kshatriyarms (arms): warriors and rulers
  • Varsyas (thighs): Skilled workers
  • Sudras (feet): unskilled workers
  • Pariahs or Untouchables

Indo-Aryan Impact on North India

• Social order
• Sanskrit language used throughout India
• Religious influences: base for Hinduism and Buddhism

Hinduism

• Population: 1.2 billion
• Key concepts:
  • Dharma: fulfilling one's mortal duty
  • Caste system determines duty
  • Samsara: reincarnation
  • Karma: good or bad deeds affecting reincarnation
  • Moksha: release from the reincarnation cycle
  • Ahimsa: non-violence
  • Yoga: clear the body and mind

Buddhism

• Population: 521 million
• Founder: Siddhartha Guatrama
• Prophecy: leaving the palace and becoming a ruler
• The Great Renunciation: dedicating life to finding truth
• Main teachings:
  • 4 Noble Truths
    • Life includes suffering and sorrow
    • Desire/negative thoughts cause suffering
    • Renouncing pleasure frees one from suffering
    • 8 fold path leads to renunciation
  • 8 fold path: right views, intentions, speech, action, living, effort, mindfulness, and concentration
  • 3 Universal Truths:
    • Annica: everything is not permanent
    • Dukka: suffering is part of life
    • Anatta: the self is not permanent

Ancient China

• Geography: Rivers, Huang He or Yellow River, and Chang Jiang or Yangtze
• Other features: Himalayas, Gobi Desert, and thick jungles in Southeast China
• Geographical isolation: developed own culture and identity
• History: one of the first people to write down history, with the Shu jing, "Classic of History"

Shang Dynasty

• Religion: Polytheism, with humans as parasites, and a focus on ancestor respect
• Writing: 10000 different symbols, only accessible to the wealthy
• Economy: Silk
• End: taken over by the Zhou

Zhou Dynasty

• Mandate of Heaven: ruler's moral behavior determines power
• Longest Chinese dynasty, with a loss of power and states rebelling
• Legend of King Yu: the boy who cried wolf

Qin Dynasty

• Regained control after the warring states
• Qin shi Huang: created the Great Wall of China and Terracotta Soldiers
• Tomb had 8000 life-sized statues of soldiers, cavalry, and chariots
• Greatest achievement: perhaps "China" comes from the Qin dynasty

Han Dynasty

• China was divided after the fall of the Qin
• Liu Bang: founder of the Han dynasty
• Greatest emperor: Wudi Han (141-87 BC)
• Expanded China into Manchuria, Korea, Vietnam, and Central Asia
• Made Confucianism the official teaching of the empire
• Silk Road/Route: trade with Greece and Rome until the fall of the Han

Confucius

• Lived during the warring states (550-480 BC)
• Created a philosophical and political system for stability
• Philosophy not theology
• Key concepts:
  • Look to the past for models of good
  • Know your place in a series of hierarchical relationships
  • Moral Emperors, stable society
  • Mandate of Heaven
  • Respect; family, elders, and ancestors
  • Concept of "Li": the Golden Rule

Daoism

• Founded by Laozi (500s BC)
• Key concepts:
  • Tao: the way of nature
  • Yin: female, dark, cold, passive, death
  • Yang: male, light, warm, active, life
  • Dualism: balance in nature and civilization
  • Anti-materialism: withdraw to be in harmony with nature

The Art of War

• Author: Sun Tzu
• Key concepts:
  • Psychological warfare is key
  • Know your enemy and their weaknesses
  • Do difficult things when they are easy
  • The unemotional and calm warrior wins
  • Avoid war if all possible

Other Concepts

• Women: Confucianism had little regard for women, with teachings on obedience, submission, and modesty
• Four Great Inventions of Ancient China:
  • Gunpowder
  • The compass
  • Paper
  • Printing

Geography of Greece

• Greece is divided into regions: Thessaly, Attica Peninsula, Pelopnnesus, and Crete
• The country has a significant mountain range, which prevented a united Greece
• There are no major rivers in Greece, but the sea is very important

Minoan Civilization (2000 - 1500 BC)

• Named after the legendary King Minos of Crete
• Known for:
  • Frescos: paintings made on wet pastels
  • Sailors and traders
  • Indoor running water
  • Linear A writing system
• The Minoan civilization ended due to a volcanic eruption and tsunami

Mycenaean Civilization (1600 - 1100 BC)

• Located on the Greek mainland
• Known for:
  • Building walls
  • Conquering Crete
  • Linear B writing system
  • Dividing into tribes (city-states)
• The Mycenaean civilization declined due to:
  • Major drought
  • Soil exhaustion
  • Natural disaster
  • System failure
• This led to the Greek Dark Ages (1100 - 800 BC)

Greek City-States

• A city-state is called a Polis
• Greek city-states are based on:
  • Geographical territory
  • The community represented
  • Political and economic independence
• Key components of a city-state:
  • Agora: marketplace
  • Acropolis: fortress and temple
  • Hinterland: villages surrounding the city
• Important city-states include: Actium, Athens, Corinth, Delos, Delphi, Olympia, Sparta, Syracuse, and Thebes

Pan-Hellenization

• Greeks sometimes refer to themselves as Greek
• Pan-Hellenization refers to a larger cultural understanding, but not a unified political entity
• Greek "things" include:
  • Literature: Iliad and Odyssey
  • Delos: temple to Apollo and Artemis
  • Olympia: religious center
  • Delphi: Oracle to find out your fate

Corinth

• One of the oldest and most important city-states
• Controlled communication between the Attica Peninsula and Peloponnesus
• Rich commercial city in Greece, developed colonies (e.g., Syracuse)
• City-states fought for control of colonies

Olympia

• Olympia was the religious center of Greece
• Best known for the Olympics, held every four years
• The Pantellenic truce was announced during the games
• Main reason for the games: to honor the gods
• Open to any free Greek
• Events included: Boxing, Running, Wrestling, and Pentathlon

Sparta

• Militaristic and Naturalistic society
• Information about Sparta comes from what others have told us
• Women in Sparta:
  • Treated better than in Athens
  • Could speak their mind
  • Could own land on their own
• Social structure:
  • Spartiates: descendants of the original inhabitants
  • Perioikoi: inhabitants of land controlled by Spartans
    • Free, paid taxes, and served in the army
  • Helots: slaves, did all the work
• Two ways to get a gravestone: die in battle or childbirth
• Spartan life and training:
  • Birth: judged to see if they are "fit"
  • 5: men didn't see their kids until then
  • 7: boys taken from family to train (Agoge)
  • 13: put into the wilderness and expected to survive
  • 14-20: In Ephebes
  • 20-30: could get married, but couldn't live with their wives
  • 60: released from service
  • Training: Agoge (13 years training period)
    • Removed all comfort
    • All wore the same clothes
    • Walked without shoes
    • Food: broth and honey
    • Encouraged to steal, but punished if caught
    • Cheese and whips game

Spartan Government

• Complicated system
• 2 kings: 1 led the army, 1 controlled day-to-day affairs
• The Gerousia (Council of Elders):
  • Proposed laws and general courts
  • Had to be over 60 years old
• The Apella (Assembly):
  • All males over 30
  • Accepted or rejected the laws of the Council
• Ephors:
  • 5 yearly elected officials
  • Kings are hereditary, Ephors hold a lot of power
  • Krypteia: the young men of Sparta

Athens

• The legend of Athens:
  • Duel between gods: Athena vs. Poseidon
  • Athena became the patron goddess of the city
• Athenian society:
  • Social structure:
    • Citizen: aristocrats or poor farmers
      • Had to be born in Athens
    • Metic: non-citizens
      • Born outside of Athens
    • Slaves
  • Valued literacy and education
  • Studied Iliad and Odyssey
  • 18-year-old: one year of military training
• Simple homes
  • Believed wealth should go towards building for all people
  • No plumbing
• Marriage:
  • Girls married at 13 or 14 to men twice their age
• Athenian women:
  • Legally and socially inferior to men
  • Citizens but couldn't own property
  • Restrictions:
    • Stay out of sight when men had people over
    • Appear in public only with man's permission

Draco and Solon

• 600 BC: laws were not written down, and judges were biased and corrupt
• Draco:
  • Tasked with writing down the laws
  • Made laws more merciful, but still not just for all (especially the poor)
  • Debt slavery (Draconian Law)
• Solon:
  • Asked to make new laws
  • Forgave the debts of Draco's system
  • Ended debt slavery entirely
  • Gave "every" citizen a vote and all could attend the Ecclesia (town hall meetings)
  • Led to the beginning stages of democracy

Athenian Democracy

• Athens was once ruled by tyrants (kings)
• 507 BC: Cleisthenes (father of democracy)
• Introduced demos kratia or "rule of the people"
• 3 separate institutions:
  • The Ecclesia: general assembly
  • The Boule: council of representatives (chosen by lot)
  • The Dikasteria: general courts
• Not exactly like the US
  • Chosen by lot, not a lot of real "voting"
  • Direct democracy, not representative
  • Only males older than 18 could participate
  • Still an incredible significant and revolutionary way to govern a society

Democracy and Navy

• Navy = Democracy
• Triremes and Themistocles
• Needed more people to row
• Lines between classes were blurred
• Metics: got citizenship if they joined the military
• All people had to work together to get the ship to sail -> no one better/more important than the other
• More people could participate in the democracy

The Greco-Persian War

• Leading to war:
  • Greek city-states grew and developed without much interference
  • Persians conquered Greek city-states on the West Coast of Asia Minor (Ionia)
  • Persia conquered Ionia
  • Impressed by the Greeks, wanted them to be part of the Persia Empire
• Ionian Revolt:
  • Athens supported the Ionians
  • Made Persia want to fight Athens

War: The Beginning

• Darius crushed the Ionian Revolt
• Darius invaded Greece for revenge on Athens
• Athens supported the Ionian Revolt
• Huge army
• Intended to crush the Greeks forever
• Athens was the target at Marathon
• Persia told to fight there by Hippias (former Athenian Tyrant)
• Athens heard of the attack and sent for help
• Sent Pheidippides
• Sparta didn't help
• Athens got little to no support from other Greeks

Battle of Marathon, 490 BC

• Athens outnumbered 3 to 1
• Thin out their lines to appear weaker
• Weak middle, strong flanks
• Datis (Persian general):
  • Took some of his troops back to the ships to sail and attack Athens
• Militades (Athenian general):
  • Ordered the attack
• The battle:
  • Persians defeated the Greek center
  • Greek center was losing, but the flanks closed in around the Persians (Double Envelopment)
  • Eliminated the Persian numbers advantage
  • Victory for the Greeks
• Aftermath:
  • Pheidippides:
    • Sent to Athens to tell of the victory
    • "Nike!" then died
  • Greek beat the Persians at Marathon and then made it back to Athens and waited for Datis to arrive
  • Persians were so scared they left

Xerxes' Revenge

• Xerxes wanted to get revenge for his father's defeat
• Used a boat bridge to cross the Hellespont to attack by land

Greek Problems

• Greece was not united
• Some even joined the Persians
• 31/100 of city