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Questions and Answers
What is the main goal of industrial chemistry?
Renewable resources can be replenished through natural processes.
True
What are some examples of renewable resources?
Plants, animals, water, soil, solar energy
Anhydrous ammonia is applied by injection below the soil surface to minimize the escape of gaseous __________ into the air.
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Match the chemical product with its main use:
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What are Urea-ammonium nitrate (UAN) solutions primarily composed of?
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How is liquid urea-ammonium nitrate (UAN) fertilizer produced?
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Urea portion of UAN solutions reacts differently based on its application method.
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Match the following compounds with their uses:
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Sulfuric acid has a very high oxidizing power and acts as a strong oxidizing and dehydrating agent. For example, Cu + 2H2SO4 → CuSO4 + SO2 + ____
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The process of converting raw animal hides and skin to leather, using tannin is called _______.
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Which of the following are examples of inorganic preservatives used for food preservation? (Select all that apply)
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What is the primary purpose of the bleaching process in the manufacturing of wood pulp?
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Match the types of tanning with their descriptions:
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Freeze-drying leaves food products with loss of aroma and flavor.
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What is the principle of the Castner-Kellner process?
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What acts as the anode in the Castner-Kellner cell?
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What forms at the mercury cathode in the Castner-Kellner process?
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Cobalt(II) oxide is added to glass to produce a green color.
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In the production of ceramics, the ceramic object is heated in an electric furnace to temperatures between 1000°C and _____°C.
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Match the colored glass with the metallic oxide added to achieve the color:
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What raw material is commonly used to produce ethanol in most liquor factories in Ethiopia?
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What is the starting material used in the brewing industry to produce beer?
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Beer raw materials include barley and yeast.
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In the process of making wine, grapes are crushed to produce a liquid called ________.
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How are liquors produced?
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What is the local Ethiopian alcohol called?
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Match the following soap and detergent statements:
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Study Notes
Industrial Chemistry
- Industrial chemistry is a branch of chemistry that applies physical and chemical procedures to transform natural raw materials and their derivatives into products.
- It bridges the gap between chemistry as taught in schools and chemistry as practiced commercially.
- Industrial chemistry is the basis of the chemical industry.
Natural Resources and Industry
- Natural resources are the raw materials for the chemical industry, obtained from the natural environment.
- Examples of natural resources include:
- Atmosphere: N2, O2, CO2, Ne, Ar, Kr, and Xe gases.
- Hydrosphere: Ocean water containing dissolved materials like sodium chloride, magnesium, and bromine.
- Lithosphere: Mineral ores, carbon, and hydrocarbons.
- Biosphere: Vegetation and animals contributing to agro-based industries.
- Natural resources can be classified into:
- Renewable resources: Can be replenished through natural cycles, such as plants, animals, wood, and solar energy.
- Non-renewable resources: Cannot be replenished, such as fossil fuels, minerals, and salts.
Industry
- Industry is a well-organized facility with a high degree of automation and specialization, where large-scale manufacturing of goods takes place.
- Manufacturing industry is a compartment of industry or economy concerned with the production of goods from raw materials.
- Classification of manufacturing industry:
- Chemical industry: Produces industrial chemicals through chemical reactions, extraction, separation, or purification.
- Food processing industries
- Beverages industries
- Textiles industries
- Wearing apparel industries
- Leather industries
- Paper products
- Chemical industries
Manufacturing of Valuable Products/Chemicals
- Manufacturing of valuable products involves a series of chemical processes, using energy and raw materials.
- Examples of valuable products:
- Ammonia (NH3)
- Nitric acid (HNO3)
- Nitrogen-based fertilizers
Ammonia (NH3)
- Properties:
- Colorless, irritating gas at room temperature
- Solubility in water: 34% (w/w) at 25°C
- Melting point: -77.7°C
- Boiling point: -33.35°C
- Uses:
- Antimicrobial agent
- Household cleaning agent
- Laboratory reagent
- Raw material for nitrogen fertilizers
- Production of soda ash and nitric acid
- Preparation:
- Laboratory preparation: Heating ammonium chloride and sodium hydroxide or calcium hydroxide
- Industrial preparation: Haber process, reacting nitrogen and hydrogen
Nitric Acid (HNO3)
- Properties:
- Colorless, oily liquid
- Strong acid
- Powerful oxidizing agent
- Uses:
- Production of ammonium nitrate
- Production of explosives (TNT, nitroglycerine)
- Soil acidification in horticulture
- Rocket fuel
- Production of organic dyes and lacquers
- Pharmaceutical industry
- Preparation:
- Industrial preparation: Ostwald process, a three-step process involving oxidation of ammonia
Nitrogen-Based Fertilizers
- Common forms of nitrogen-based fertilizers:
- Anhydrous ammonia (NH3)
- Urea (CO(NH2)2)
- Urea-ammonium nitrate (UAN) solutions
- Diammonium monohydrogen phosphate (DAP) ((NH4)2HPO4)
- Anhydrous Ammonia (NH3)
- Properties: Hygroscopic, reacts quickly with water and changes to ammonium (NH4+) form
- Application: Injection 6-8 inches below soil surface
- Soil reactions: Nitrification and denitrification
- Urea (CO(NH2)2)
- Properties: Solid fertilizer with high N content (46%)
- Production: Reacting CO2 with NH3
- Soil reactions: Hydrolysis to carbon dioxide and ammonia
- Urea-Ammonium Nitrate (UAN) Solutions
- Properties: Mixtures of urea, ammonium nitrate, and water
- Production: Heating solutions of urea and ammonium nitrate
- Soil reactions: Similar to urea
- Diammonium Monohydrogen Phosphate (DAP) ((NH4)2HPO4)
- Properties: White crystalline compound
- Production: Reaction between ammonia and phosphoric acid
- Uses: Fertilizer, fire retardant, yeast nutrient in wine making and beer brewing
Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4)
- Properties:
- Colorless, odorless, heavy, oily liquid
- Highly corrosive and reactive
- Soluble in all ratios with water
- Uses:
- Fertilizer industry
- Petroleum refining
- Chemical industry
- Metallurgy
- Cleaning surfaces of metals
- Storage batteries
- Preparation:
- Industrial preparation: Contact process, a four-step process involving burning sulphur, converting SO2 to SO3, and reacting SO3 with H2SO4
Pesticides and Herbicides
- Pesticides: Chemicals used to prevent or control pests, diseases, weeds, and other plant pathogens
- Classification of pesticides:
- Insecticides
- Herbicides
- Fungicides
- Rodenticides
- Bactericides
- Examples of pesticides:
- Traditionally produced pesticides: Neem Leaf, Salt Spray, and Onion and Garlic Spray
- Botanical pesticides: Extracted from various plant parts, used to control pests and diseases### Herbicides
- Herbicides are substances used to control unwanted plants.
- Types of herbicides:
- Selective herbicides: control specific weed species, leaving desired crops relatively unharmed.
- Non-selective herbicides (total weed killers): kill all plant material with which they come into contact.
- Herbicides have largely replaced mechanical methods of weed control in countries with intensive and highly mechanized agriculture.
Sodium Carbonate
- Properties:
- White crystalline solid powder.
- Exists as a hydrate (Na2CO3.10H2O) compound.
- Density: 2.54 g/cm3.
- Purity: > 98 %.
- High melting point: 851°C.
- High boiling point: 1,600 °C.
- Hygroscopic properties.
- Two forms of sodium carbonate:
- Light soda: lower density (0.7 g/ml).
- Dense soda: higher density (0.9 g/ml).
- Uses:
- Manufacturing glass.
- Production of detergents and soaps.
- Production of pulp and paper.
- Tissue digestion, dissolving amphoteric metals and compounds.
- Food preparation.
- Cleaning agent.
- Brick industry.
Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)
- Properties:
- White, translucent crystalline solid.
- Melting point: 591 K.
- Stable compound.
- Decomposes proteins at room temperature.
- Causes chemical burns to human bodies.
- Soluble in water, moderately soluble in alcohol.
- Strongly alkaline.
- Manufacturing process:
- Electrolysis of sodium chloride (NaCl) and water (H2O).
- Methods: Castner-Kellner process, Nelson Diaphragm cell, Loewig’s process.
- Uses:
- Manufacturing soap, detergents, pulp, and paper.
- Alumina extraction from bauxite in aluminum production.
- Removing sulphur from petroleum.
Manufacturing Industries in Ethiopia
- List of industries:
- Cement factories.
- Paint factories.
- Soap and detergent factories.
- Sugar factories.
- Tyre factories.
- Breweries.
- Tanneries.
- Plastic factories.
- Pesticide factories.
- Caustic soda factory.
- Ceramic factory.
- Gas and chemical products factories.
- Glass factory.
- Textile factories.
- Food factories.
Glass Manufacturing
- Properties of glass:
- Amorphous or non-crystalline solid material.
- Inexpensive to make.
- Easy to shape when molten.
- Can be recycled.
- Main component: silica.
- Types of glass:
- Quartz glass: made from pure silica (SiO2) at high temperature.
- Soda-lime glass: ordinary glass, made from sodium silicate and calcium silicate.
- Borosilicate glass (Pyrex): made from boron (III) oxide (B2O3), high resistance to chemical corrosion and temperature changes.
- Steps in glass production:
- Batch preparation.
- Glass melting.
- Glass forming.
- Annealing.
- Inspection.
- Packing and dispatching.
Ceramics
- Properties of ceramics:
- Inorganic, non-metallic solid.
- Prepared by heating minerals to high temperature and then cooling.
- Traditional ceramics: formed from minerals such as clay, talc, and feldspar.
- Modern ceramics: formed from extremely pure powders of specialty chemicals.
- Manufacturing process:
- Crushing and grinding minerals.
- Purification process.
- Moulding.
- Densification.
- Heat treatment.
- Insulation.
- Final shaping and finishing.
- Uses of ceramics:
- Art sculptures.
- Kitchenware.
- Tiles and bathroom structures.
- Electrical insulators.
- Computer parts.
- Tools.
- Dental replacements.
- Engine parts.
- Space shuttle tiles.
Cement
- Raw materials:
- Limestone.
- Clay.
- Silica sand.
- Gypsum.
- Calcium silicate.
- Calcium aluminate.
- Iron (III) oxide.
- Magnesium oxide.
- Pumice.
- Manufacturing process:
- Calcination.
- Clinker formation.
- Grinding with gypsum.
- Formation of Ordinary Portland cement (OPC).
- Uses of cement:
- Building construction.
- Road construction.
- Bridge construction.
Sugar Manufacturing
- Steps in sugar production:
- Collecting the harvest.
- Cleaning and grinding.
- Juicing.
- Clarifying.
- Evaporation.
- Crystallization.
- Refinery.
- Separation and packaging.
- Uses of sugar:
- Food and beverage industry.
- Confectionery.
- Pharmaceuticals.
Paper and Pulp
- Properties of paper:
- Mixture of rags and wood pulp.
- Glued together with additives.
- Bleached and dried.
- Wood pulp:
- Made from soft-wood and hard-wood trees.
- Composed of cellulose, lignin, oils, and resins.
- Lignin: binds fibers of cellulose together.
- Manufacturing process:
- Harvesting.
- Preparation.
- Pulping.
- Mechanical pulping.
- Chemical pulping.
- Uses of paper:
- Writing and printing.
- Packaging.
- Tissue products.
- Construction materials.### Paper Manufacturing
- The Kraft process uses aqueous sodium hydroxide and sodium sulphide as a digestion solution to break down wood chips into pulp.
- The process involves four hours of digestion at 170°C, followed by filtration to separate the pulp.
- The Sulphite process uses a cooking liquor solution of sodium bisulphate or magnesium bisulphate to break down wood chips into pulp.
- The process involves six to twelve hours of digestion at 60°C, followed by filtration to recover the pulp.
Bleaching and Pulp Processing
- Bleaching involves removing coloring matter from wood pulp using strong oxidizing agents like chlorine, chlorine oxide, ozone, and hydrogen peroxide.
- The pulp is washed to remove chemicals and passed through screens to remove foreign materials.
- The pulp is then processed into a liquid stock that can be transferred to a paper mill.
Paper Making
- The pulp is poured onto a continuously moving screen belt, allowing the liquor to seep away by gravity.
- The continuous sheet then passes through additional rollers to compress the fibers and remove residual water, producing fine paper.
Tannery
- Tanning is the process of converting raw animal hides and skin to leather using tannin, an acidic chemical that permanently alters protein structure.
- The tanning process involves preparatory stages, tanning, and crusting.
- Preparatory stages include curing, soaking, flesh removal, hair removal, scudding, and deliming.
- There are two main types of tanning: vegetable or natural tanning, which uses tannins from plants, and mineral tanning, which uses chemicals like chromium sulphate.
Food Processing and Preservation
- Food preservation involves treating and handling food to prevent spoilage, loss of quality, or edibility caused by microorganisms.
- Modern methods of food preservation include freezing, freeze-drying, and vacuum-packing.
- Inorganic and organic preservatives like sodium chloride, nitrate, sulfur dioxide, and organic acids are used to preserve food.
Manufacturing of Ethanol
- Ethanol is a constituent of all alcoholic beverages and can be manufactured industrially by fermentation of carbohydrates or catalytic hydration of ethene.
- Fermentation involves the slow decomposition of carbohydrates in the presence of enzymes, producing ethanol and carbon dioxide.
- The fermentation process can produce beverages with an ethanol content of 12-15%.
- Distillation is required to produce beverages with higher ethanol content.
Soap and Detergent
- Soaps are metallic salts of higher fatty acids, used to remove dirt and change surface properties.
- Soaps are prepared by boiling animal fat or vegetable oil with a base, a process called saponification.
- Soaps have both hydrophilic (water-loving) and hydrophobic (water-hating) properties.
- Industrially, soap is produced in four basic steps: saponification, glycerin removal, purification, and finishing.
Detergents
- Detergents are sodium salts of sulphonated long chain organic alcohols, used to remove dirt and stains.
- Detergents are more soluble than soap in water and form stable emulsions with grease.
- They are suitable for use with both soft and hard water and do not form a scum with hard water.
- However, detergents are not biodegradable and can pose a danger to aquatic life.
Dry Cleaning
- Dry cleaning involves using organic chemicals to dissolve grease and stains without the use of water.
- Dry cleaning is often used for delicate fabrics that cannot be washed with water, such as silk.
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