Psych 102 exam

What is a scientific theory?

What is a hypothesis?

Provide an example of a scientific theory in psychology.

Provide an example of a hypothesis derived from the theory of negative attentional bias in depression.

Define Confirmation Bias.

Give an example illustrating how the phrasing of a question can reflect Confirmation Bias.

Describe the Hastorf and Cantril football study as an example of Confirmation Bias.

What were Wilhelm Wundt's primary research methods?

Give an example of an introspection task Wundt might have used.

What was the main goal of Structuralism in psychology?

Who was Edward Titchener?

Who was William James?

What is 'Principles of Psychology'?

What was the key difference in the types of questions asked by Structuralists versus Functionalists?

Provide an example of a question a Functionalist might ask.

What is the lasting influence of Functionalism on modern psychology?

Define Behaviourism.

Who is considered the founder of Behaviourism?

When and where did Wundt establish the first psychology lab, and what was its purpose?

Define consciousness as understood in early psychology.

What does 'RT experiments' stand for in the context of Wundt's methods?

What was John B. Watson's major criticism in 1913 regarding the direction of psychology?

According to early behaviourists like Watson, what essential characteristic must psychological science possess?

How did Behaviourism approach the study of the mind?

What relationship did Behaviourism primarily focus on?

What specific type of conditioning did B.F. Skinner extensively examine?

What type of conditioning was the primary focus of Watson's study in behaviourism?

What is Cognitivism?

What mental processes are typically included within the scope of cognitive psychology?

According to cognitivism, how does thinking relate to behaviour?

What is cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT)?

What does Cognitive Neuroscience examine?

What is the main focus of Psychoanalysis?

According to psychoanalytic theory, what does the unconscious mind contain?

What is a major criticism of psychoanalytic theories?

What are two key insights contributed by psychoanalysis?

What is a 'Freudian Slip'?

What is the purpose of dream analysis in psychoanalysis?

According to Freud's dream protection theory, what do dreams represent?

In Freudian dream analysis, what is the 'manifest content'?

In Freudian dream analysis, what is the 'latent content'?

What does Humanism emphasize, particularly in contrast to behaviourism and psychoanalysis?

Who is Abraham Maslow, and what did he propose regarding the cause of psychological disorders?

Define generalizability in the context of research.

Define external validity.

How can generalizability be described?

What is a representative sample?

What is random selection in research sampling?

Define reliability in research.

What is test-retest reliability?

Define interrater reliability.

Define validity in research.

What is construct validity?

What is a polygraph, and what are its characteristics regarding reliability and validity?

What is naturalistic observation?

What does external validity refer to in research?

What is internal validity?

What is a case study?

What are self-report measures used for?

What are surveys typically used to measure?

What do correlational designs assess?

What is a correlation coefficient?

What kind of inferences do experimental designs permit?

What is random assignment in experimental design?

How is the manipulation of an independent variable often achieved in a simple experiment?

Provide an example research question suitable for a between-subjects design.

Define the independent variable in an experiment.

Define the dependent variable in an experiment.

What is the function of dendrites in a neuron?

What is the function of the cell body (soma) of a neuron?

What is the function of axons and axon terminals?

What are synaptic vesicles and what do they contain?

What is the typical resting potential of a neuron?

What is the threshold of excitation for a neuron?

What happens during the depolarization phase of an action potential?

What happens during the repolarization phase of an action potential?

What happens during the hyperpolarization phase after an action potential?

What effect do agonists have on neurotransmitter systems?

What type of drug often acts as a reuptake inhibitor?

What effect do antagonists have on neurotransmitter systems?

What are the main functions associated with the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex?

What are the main functions associated with the parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex?

What are the main functions associated with the temporal lobe of the cerebral cortex?

What is the main function associated with the occipital lobe of the cerebral cortex?

Describe sensory adaptation.

Define the absolute threshold of a stimulus.

What is the 'just noticeable difference' (JND)?

State Weber's Law.

Describe bottom-up processing.

Describe top-down processing.

What are the Gestalt principles of object perception?

How many stages of sleep do we typically cycle through, and how long is a cycle?

What characterizes Stage 1 sleep?

What characterizes Stage 4 / REM sleep?

What are reinforcers in the context of learning?

Define positive reinforcement.

Define negative reinforcement.

Define punishment in the context of learning.

What are schedules of reinforcement?

Describe a fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement.

What is a scientific theory?

What is a hypothesis?

Provide an example of a scientific theory in psychology mentioned in the content.

Based on the theory of negative attentional bias in depression, provide an example of a testable hypothesis.

Define confirmation bias.

Which phrasing demonstrates how question formulation can reflect or induce confirmation bias?

In the Hastorf and Cantril football study, how did confirmation bias manifest among Dartmouth and Princeton fans?

What were the two primary methods Wilhelm Wundt used in his early psychological research?

Provide an example of an introspection task.

Which early school of psychology, associated with Wundt and Titchener, aimed to identify the basic 'structures' or elements of psychological experience using introspection?

Who was a key student of Wundt and a major proponent of Structuralism?

Which influential American psychologist is most associated with the school of Functionalism?

What is the title of William James's major work, largely based on observations of the functions of his own mind?

How did the central questions asked by Functionalists differ from those asked by Structuralists?

Provide an example of a question a Functionalist might investigate.

True or False: The Functionalist perspective has largely disappeared and has little influence on modern psychology.

Which school of psychology focused on uncovering the general laws of learning by looking largely at observable behavior?

Who is considered the founder of Behaviorism?

When and where did Wilhelm Wundt establish the first formal psychology laboratory?

In the context of early psychology (Wundt), what did 'consciousness' refer to?

What do 'RT experiments' refer to in the context of Wundt's methods?

What aspect of early psychology did John B. Watson notably criticize around 1913?

Behaviorists argued that psychological science must be _____ rather than subjective.

Behaviorism established laws of learning and effectively eliminated what from the scope of scientific psychology for a time?

Behaviorism focused on understanding the relation between _____ in the environment and observable _____.

Which prominent behaviorist extensively studied operant conditioning, examining how behavior is shaped by rewards and punishments?

What type of conditioning, involving associating stimuli, was a key focus of John B. Watson's behaviorism?

What school of thought emerged later, bringing the focus back to the study of mental processes?

List at least three examples of mental processes studied in cognitive psychology.

A central tenet of cognitivism is that _____ affects our behaviour in powerful ways.

What type of therapy integrates principles from both cognitive psychology and behaviorism?

What field specifically examines the relationship between brain activity and cognitive processes like thinking?

Which major school of thought, pioneered by Sigmund Freud, focuses on internal psychological processes (like impulses, thoughts, and memories) of which we are unaware?

According to psychoanalytic theory, what does the unconscious mind contain?

What is a common criticism leveled against psychoanalytic theories?

Psychoanalysis highlighted the importance of early childhood development and the idea that some significant mental processing occurs _____ awareness.

In psychoanalytic terms, what is a 'Freudian slip' believed to reveal?

What is the purpose of dream analysis within psychoanalysis?

According to Freud's dream protection theory, what is the primary function or representation of dreams?

In Freud's theory of dreams, what is the 'manifest content'?

In Freud's theory of dreams, what is the 'latent content'?

Which psychological perspective emerged as a 'third force', emphasizing unique human qualities like free will and self-actualization, in opposition to behaviorism and psychoanalysis?

Which key figure in humanistic psychology proposed that psychological disorders often result from the hindering of basic human needs, such as the need for self-actualization?

In research, what does generalizability refer to?

What is external validity in research?

What is a representative sample?

What procedure helps ensure a representative sample by giving every person in the population an equal chance of being selected?

What does reliability refer to in psychological measurement?

A reliable questionnaire should yield similar scores over time when administered to the same individuals. This specific type of reliability is called - reliability.

What type of reliability assesses the extent to which different observers or raters agree on their measurements or judgments?

What does validity refer to in psychological measurement?

What specific type of validity evaluates whether a test or measure accurately assesses the underlying theoretical concept (construct) it is intended to measure?

True or False: A polygraph (lie detector) test is consistently reliable in measuring physiological responses but is generally considered invalid as an accurate measure of deception.

What research method involves observing behavior in its natural setting without direct intervention or manipulation?

Naturalistic observation often has high _____ validity because the observations occur in real-world settings.

What type of validity refers to the extent to which a study can confidently establish a cause-and-effect relationship between variables?

Which research method involves an in-depth examination of a single individual or a small number of people, often over an extended period?

What type of research measures rely on participants' own reports of their characteristics, attitudes, or behaviors, typically through questionnaires or interviews?

What are surveys primarily used to measure?

What type of research design examines the extent to which two or more variables are associated or related to each other?

What statistic, ranging from -1.0 to +1.0, quantifies the strength and direction of the linear relationship between two variables?

Which type of research design is unique in its ability to permit inferences about cause and effect?

What key procedure in experimental design involves assigning participants to different conditions (e.g., experimental group, control group) purely by chance?

How does an experimenter typicaly manipulate an independent variable?

An experiment comparing the typing performance of one group listening to distracting music versus a separate group typing in silence is an example of a _____-subjects design.

In an experiment, what is the variable that the researcher manipulates or changes?

In an experiment, what is the variable that the researcher measures to see if the manipulation had an effect?

Which part of the neuron receives signals from other neurons?

What is the central region of the neuron, also called the soma, which contains the nucleus and keeps the cell alive?

Which parts of the neuron are responsible for transmitting signals away from the cell body towards other neurons?

What are the spherical sacs located in the axon terminals that contain neurotransmitter molecules?

What is the approximate electrical charge of a neuron at rest (resting potential)?

What is the membrane potential level that must be reached for a neuron to fire an action potential?

What stage of the action potential involves the opening of sodium channels and a rapid influx of positive sodium ions into the neuron?

Following depolarization, what stage involves the opening of potassium channels, allowing positive potassium ions to leave the cell?

What is the brief period after repolarization where the neuron's membrane potential temporarily becomes even more negative than the resting potential?

What type of drug mimics or increases the effects of a specific neurotransmitter system?

Many common anti-depressants function as _____ _____, increasing the availability of neurotransmitters like serotonin by blocking their reabsorption.

What type of drug blocks or decreases the effects of a specific neurotransmitter system?

Which lobe of the cerebral cortex is primarily responsible for higher-level cognitive functions like planning, decision-making, motor control, and language production (e.g., Broca's area)?

Which lobe of the cerebral cortex, located behind the frontal lobe, is primarily responsible for processing touch information (somatosensory cortex), integrating sensory input, and spatial awareness?

Which lobe, located on the sides of the head, is primarily involved in processing auditory information, understanding language (e.g., Wernicke's area), and storing long-term memories?

Which lobe, located at the back of the head, is almost exclusively dedicated to processing visual information?

What phenomenon describes the diminishing sensitivity to an unchanging stimulus, where our sensory system's activation is highest when the stimulus is first detected?

What is the term for the minimum intensity of a stimulus that a person can detect 50% of the time?

What term refers to the smallest detectable change in the intensity of a stimulus?

What psychophysical law states that the just noticeable difference (JND) is a constant proportion of the original stimulus intensity?

Which type of perceptual processing starts with raw sensory data and constructs a perception from the individual parts?

Which type of perceptual processing involves using prior knowledge, experiences, expectations, and beliefs to interpret raw sensory stimuli?

What set of perceptual rules, studied by Gestalt psychologists, describes how we tend to organize sensory information into meaningful wholes and patterns?

How many stages of sleep do we typically cycle through, and approximately how long does one full cycle last?

During Stage 1 sleep, which is a light sleep stage, brain waves transition from faster Beta waves (seen when awake) to slower _____ waves.

Which stage of sleep is characterized by rapid eye movements, brain activity similar to wakefulness, muscle paralysis, and often vivid dreaming?

In operant conditioning, what term describes outcomes that increase the likelihood of a behavior being repeated?

What type of reinforcement involves presenting a desirable stimulus after a behavior occurs, making the behavior more likely to happen again?

What type of reinforcement involves removing an undesirable or aversive stimulus after a behavior occurs, making the behavior more likely to happen again?

In operant conditioning, what term describes any outcome that decreases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated?

What term refers to the different patterns or rules for delivering reinforcement (e.g., after every response, after a set time interval)?

What schedule of reinforcement delivers reinforcement after a specific, unchanging number of responses has occurred?

What is a scientific theory?

What is a hypothesis?

Provide an example of a scientific theory in psychology.

Provide an example of a hypothesis derived from the theory of negative attentional bias in depression.

True or False: Confirmation bias involves seeking out evidence that contradicts our hypotheses.

Give an example illustrating confirmation bias in how questions are framed.

Describe the Hastorf and Cantril football study as an example of confirmation bias.

What were the two main methods used by Wilhelm Wundt?

Give an example of an introspection task.

Structuralism aimed to identify the _____ of the psychological experience.

Which student of Wundt was a key figure in Structuralism?

Who was William James?

What is 'Principles of Psychology'?

How did the questions asked by Structuralists and Functionalists differ?

Provide an example of a question a Functionalist might ask.

What is the lasting influence of Functionalism?

Behaviorism focuses on uncovering the general principles of learning underlying:

Who is considered the founder of Behaviorism?

When and where did Wundt establish his psychology lab, and what was its purpose?

Define consciousness in the context of early psychology.

What does 'RT experiments' stand for in the context of Wundt's methods?

What was Watson's main criticism in 1913 regarding the study of psychology?

According to early behaviorists like Watson, what characteristic must psychological science possess?

How did Behaviorism approach the study of the mind?

In Behaviorism, what relationship was primarily studied?

B.F. Skinner is most associated with the study of:

What was the focus of Watson's study within behaviorism?

What is Cognitivism also known as?

What areas does cognitive psychology encompass?

According to cognitivism, how does thinking relate to behavior?

What does Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) integrate?

What does Cognitive Neuroscience examine?

True or False: Psychoanalysis primarily focuses on conscious thought processes.

According to psychoanalytic theory, what does the unconscious mind contain?

What is a common criticism of Psychoanalysis?

Besides the unconscious, what other concept highlighted by psychoanalysis remains important?

What is a Freudian Slip purported to reveal?

What is the purpose of dream analysis in psychoanalysis?

According to Freud's dream protection theory, what do dreams represent?

In dream analysis, what is the manifest content?

In dream analysis, what is the latent content?

Humanism emphasized the unique qualities of humans in opposition to which two major schools of thought?

Which psychologist is associated with humanism and the idea that psychological disorders stem from unmet human needs?

Define generalizability in the context of research.

What is external validity?

What does generalizability refer to regarding research results?

What is a representative sample?

Define random selection.

True or False: Reliability refers to whether a measure assesses what it claims to measure.

What does test-retest reliability indicate about a questionnaire?

Define interrater reliability.

True or False: Validity refers to the consistency of measurement.

What does construct validity assess?

What is a polygraph, and what are its characteristics regarding reliability and validity?

Define naturalistic observation.

What does external validity specifically refer to in terms of research findings?

Define internal validity.

What is a case study?

How do self-report measures assess participant characteristics?

What are surveys typically used to measure?

What do correlational designs assess?

What does a correlation coefficient indicate?

True or False: Correlational designs permit cause and effect inferences.

What is random assignment in an experiment?

Describe an example of manipulating an independent variable using random assignment, based on the provided definition.

Provide the example research question given for a between-subjects design.

True or False: The independent variable is the variable the experimenter measures to see if the manipulation has an effect.

In an experiment, what is the dependent variable?

What is the function of dendrites?

What role does the cell body (soma) play in a neuron?

What is the function of axons and axon terminals?

What do synaptic vesicles contain?

The typical resting potential of a neuron is:

What is the threshold of excitation for a neuron?

What happens during depolarization in a neuron's action potential?

What happens during repolarization in a neuron's action potential?

What event marks the end of hyperpolarization in a neuron's action potential?

True or False: Agonists decrease the activity of a neurotransmitter system.

What is an example application of reuptake inhibitors?

True or False: Antagonists increase the activity of a neurotransmitter system.

What functions are associated with the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex?

What functions are associated with the parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex?

What functions are associated with the temporal lobe of the cerebral cortex?

What functions are associated with the occipital lobe of the cerebral cortex?

When is sensory adaptation highest?

Define the absolute threshold of a stimulus.

What is the just noticeable difference (JND)?

What does Weber's Law state?

True or False: Bottom-up processing modifies raw sensory data based on prior experiences and expectations.

How is the raw stimulus processed in top-down processing?

What do the Gestalt principles of object perception explain?

How many stages of sleep do we cycle through, and how long is a typical cycle?

What change in brain waves characterizes Stage 1 sleep?

According to the flashcard, how does brain activity during Stage 4/REM sleep compare to wakefulness? (Note standard models often list 5 stages, with REM as the 5th)

What effect do reinforcers have on behavior?

True or False: Positive reinforcement involves removing a stimulus to increase a response.

True or False: Negative reinforcement involves presenting a stimulus to increase a response.

True or False: Punishment is any outcome that increases the probability of a response occurring again.

What are schedules of reinforcement?

Describe a fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement.