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Questions and Answers
What is emphasized by the dominant approach in trait theories?
According to the 5 Factor Model, which trait is associated with higher job satisfaction?
What is the primary critique of Allport's definition of personality traits?
How are traits characterized according to the central dogma of the Five Factor Model?
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What does the Tsimane Big Two concept include as personality traits?
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What geographical trend is observed in relation to personality traits?
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Which cultural dimension is strongly correlated with extraversion?
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What do trait-theorists believe is the primary cause of national differences in personality traits?
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According to evolutionary psychology, what influences preferences for mates among men and women?
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What impact do pathogens have on personality characteristics, according to the content?
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How do Buss and Gangestad correlate pathogen prevalence with perceptions of physical attractiveness?
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What did Bussey and Bandura argue against evolutionary psychology?
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Which trait is associated with higher life expectancy but also with rigidity and obsession?
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What effect have Western gender roles experienced over time according to the content?
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What can be concluded about the origins of individual personality differences within cultures?
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What is Seligman’s Preparedness Theory primarily concerned with?
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What has significantly influenced changes in reproduction practices over the past decade?
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Which statement best reflects Buss's view on the relationship between technological advancements and biological selection?
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What aspect of human behavior does Buss suggest needs to be integrated within evolutionary psychology?
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How are perceptions of physical attractiveness related to health according to Buss and Gangestad?
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What role does pathogen prevalence play in cultural attitudes towards mate selection criteria?
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What is the main difference between transmitted culture and evoked culture?
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Which of the following is a significant indicator of reproductive fitness in mate selection?
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According to the research, what factor is more predictive of preferences for physical attractiveness than gender equality?
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What hypothesis supports the connection between physical appearance and mate selection in cultures with high pathogen prevalence?
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How do cultural differences relate to individual traits according to Buss?
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According to Nettle, what influences the evolution of personality traits?
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What behavioral change might occur among individuals in areas with high disease prevalence?
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What is a potential outcome of high pathogen prevalence in a population regarding mate selection?
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How do evolutionary pressures affect personality traits according to Schaller and Murray?
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What can be concluded about the influence of cultural evolution on individual traits?
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What is implied about universal human nature in the context of personality evolution?
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Which of the following are considered universal theories of personality?
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Who has the view of personality as a dynamic organization within an individual, where psychophysical systems determine behavior and thoughts?
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What is an issue with using the lexical hypothesis in trait theories of personality?
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The process of assigning coordinates for traits on a graph is known as:
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How much of personality variability is due to genetics?
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What did Allik and McCrae's cluster analysis of global personality find?
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Are personality differences greater between cultures, or within a culture?
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What did Tooby and Cosmides propose about personality psychology in 1990?
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Which are reasons that Bussey and Bandura proposed as arguments AGAINST evolutionary psychology?
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Study Notes
Universal Theories of Personality
- Human Nature: Whether human nature is real and what it looks like is a debate in personality psychology.
- Trait Psychology: Proposes that personality traits apply universally to all cultures.
- Evolutionary Psychology: Focuses on universally evolved mechanisms like gender and cultural differences.
- Cross-cultural Variation: Explaining differences within and between cultures is a significant challenge for theories of personality.
Trait Theories
- Nomothetic Approach: Emphasizes studying groups of people in a general way.
- Nature Over Nurture: Suggests that biological factors play a more significant role in personality development compared to environmental influences.
- Dominant approach in Personality Psychology: Trait theories dominate the field, likely due to their quantifiable nature.
- Lexical Hypothesis: Suggests that personality traits are reflected in the words used to describe people.
- Allport's Definition of Traits: Defines traits as "psychophysical systems that determine his characteristic behaviour and thoughts."
- Markus et al.'s Critique: Argues that trait theories do not sufficiently acknowledge the role of situation, context, and culture in individual behavior.
The Five Factor Model (FFM) and Five Factor Theory (FFT)
- OCEAN: Stands for Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism.
- Relative Stability: Traits are relatively stable over time and resistant to change with life experience.
- Empirical Support: Possesses a strong empirical basis and is predictive of various outcomes.
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Research Findings:
- Job Satisfaction: Low neuroticism and high extraversion are associated with higher job satisfaction.
- Clinical Disorders: High neuroticism, low conscientiousness, agreeableness, and extraversion are linked to clinical disorders.
- Academic Performance: Conscientiousness is a predictor of university performance.
Traits and Culture
- Endogenous Nature of Traits: FFM traits are seen as endogenous, meaning that they emerge internally rather than being shaped by external influences.
- Central Dogma of FFT: The central dogma of FFT is that cultural and life experiences do not directly influence basic personality traits.
Universality of FFM Traits
- Factor Analysis: Factor analysis is used to identify traits from language dictionaries around the world.
- Research Findings suggest that the five factors are generally replicated across diverse cultures.
- University Student Bias: Much of the cross-cultural FFM research has focused on university students, raising concerns about generalizability.
- Bolivian Indigenous Sample: A study involving the Tsimane group, with limited formal education, revealed a "Big Two" personality factors: pro-sociality and industriousness.
- Limited Representation: Raises the question of whether the Big Five is representative of the full range of human personality, particularly in non-Western cultures.
Geography of Personality
- Cultural Influence: Personality traits are believed to shape cultural practices and societal norms.
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Personality Profiles of Culture:
- East vs. West: Differences in personality profiles have been observed between Western and Eastern cultures.
- Collectivism vs. Individualism: Collectivist cultures tend to prioritize group harmony, while individualistic cultures emphasize individual achievement.
Traits and Cultural Dimensions
- Individualism and Extraversion: Individualism is strongly correlated with extraversion.
Geographical Differences
- Distance from Equator: People living further away from the equator tend to be more extraverted and less conscientious.
- Cluster Analysis: Individuals living in close geographical proximity exhibit more similar personalities.
- Language Evolution: The dynamic nature of language poses a challenge for a static trait theory grounded in language analysis.
Multidimensional Scaling (MDS)
- Graphical Representation: MDS assigns coordinates for traits on a graph, providing a visual representation of personality dimensions.
Potential for Stereotyping
- Variability Within Countries: Significant variations exist within countries, meaning that differences between countries are relatively small.
- Self-Report vs. Observer Ratings: Both self-reports and observer ratings produce similar results, suggesting that personality differences are not solely due to self-report bias.
Similarities in Personality:
- Shared Culture, Genes, and Environment: Individuals sharing similar cultures, genes, and physical environments tend to exhibit greater personality similarities.
- Genetic Influence: Trait theorists suggest that national differences in traits are rooted in genetic differences.
- Evidence for Environmental Influence: Meta-analyses suggest that approximately 60% of personality differences are attributed to environmental factors.
Evolutionary Approaches
- Tooby & Cosmides (1990): Argue that our psychological adaptations are likely to be as evolved as our physical and physiological features.
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Core Assumptions of Evolutionary Psychology:
- Darwin’s Natural Selection: Evolutionary psychology posits that adaptations arise through reproductive success.
- Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness (EEA): Psychological adaptations are shaped by the environment in which humans evolved.
Human Nature and Evolutionary Psychology
- No Blank Slate: Humans are not born as blank slates, but possess innate psychological mechanisms.
- Preparedness Theory (Seligman): Certain fears, such as fear of snakes or heights, are more easily learned, suggesting a biological basis for these fears.
Selective Pressures and Sex Differences
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Reproductive Success: Males and females face different adaptive stressors related to reproductive success.
- Females: Prefer males who can provide resources for pregnancy and child rearing.
- Males: Prefer young, healthy females.
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Buss 1989: Found that women prefer wealthy men, and men prefer young, attractive women.
- Long-Term (LT): Women prioritize status and resources in LT relationships, while men prioritize looks both in ST and LT relationships.
- Short-Term (ST): Men’s preference for looks is more pronounced in ST relationships.
Criticisms of Evolutionary Psychology
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Bussey and Bandura 1999: Argue that evolutionary psychology cannot account for:
- Cultural Diversity in Gender Roles: Gender roles vary greatly across cultures.
- Cultural Differences in Beauty: Cultural factors, rather than biological universals, shape notions of beauty.
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Rapid Shift in Western Gender Roles:
- Women in the Workforce: Women's increased participation in the workforce has led to shifts in traditional gender roles.
- Men Adopting Feminine Roles: Men have started adopting behaviors traditionally associated with femininity.
- Contraception: Contraception has changed reproductive practices, impacting gender roles.
Accounting for Cultural Diversity
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Buss 2001: Proposed two mechanisms to explain cultural variation:
- Transmitted Culture: Cultural differences are passed down across individuals and groups, including beliefs and ideas.
- Evoked Culture: Cultural differences are elicited by different environments.
Evolutionary Psychology and Attractiveness
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Evoked Culture: Evolutionary psychology suggests that our psychological mechanisms drive attractiveness judgments to increase reproductive success.
- Facial Symmetry: Symmetrical faces are generally perceived as more attractive.
- Buss & Gangestad: A strong correlation exists between pathogen prevalence and cultural emphasis on physical attractiveness.
- Gender Equality and Mate Preferences: In gender equal societies, men value intelligence more, and women prioritize domestic skills.
- Pathogen Prevalence and Attractiveness: As pathogen prevalence increases, people prefer signs of health.
Traits and Evolution
- Individual Differences: While cultures share some traits, there are important individual differences within those cultures.
Evolution of Traits
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Nettle 2006: Suggested that traits are associated with both costs and benefits in different environments.
- Extraversion: Offers greater mating success, but also carries physical risks.
- Neuroticism: Promotes alertness to danger, but can lead to stress, depression, and interpersonal difficulties.
- Openness: Facilitates creativity, but may be associated with psychosis.
- Conscientiousness: Promotes long-term fitness and longevity, but can lead to rigidity and obsessiveness.
- Agreeableness: Encourages empathy and social harmony, but increases susceptibility to exploitation.
Pathogens and Personality
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Disease Prevalence: Higher disease prevalence might lead to more cautious and conservative behaviors in social and physical environments.
- Negative Attitudes Towards Casual Sex: Increased disease prevalence is linked to more negative attitudes toward casual sex.
- Decrease in Extraversion and Openness: Higher disease prevalence is associated with lower levels of extraversion and openness.
Attractiveness Judgments
- Transmitted culture: Cultural beliefs and ideas passed on to individuals and groups
- Evoked culture: Cultural differences triggered by unique environmental factors, such as pathogens
- Facial symmetry and good genes: Symmetrical faces are associated with good genes and reproductive fitness
Evolutionary Psychology and Culture
- Cultural differences and attractiveness: Cultures with high pathogen prevalence place greater emphasis on physical appearance as a mate selection criteria.
- Gangestad & Buss (1993): Strong correlation (r = .71) between pathogen prevalence and cultural emphasis on physical attractiveness.
- Gangestad et al (2006): Parasite prevalence is a better predictor of preference for physical attractiveness than "gender equality."
Traits and Evolution
- Individual & cultural differences: Cultural differences should not overshadow the individual differences within those cultures or the potential overlap between them.
- Evolution of traits: Natural selection plays a role in the development of traits through the interplay of costs & benefits associated with different environments.
- Pathogens and personality: Environments with higher prevalence of infectious diseases may lead to more cautious and conservative social and physical interactions.
Evolutionary Psychology and Cultural Differences
- Universal human nature & cultural variation: Evolutionary Psychology aims to explain both universal aspects of human nature and the unique characteristics of different cultures.
- Cultural differences and beauty: Diversity and sex differences in beauty standards are recognized by Evolutionary Psychology.
- Contraception and reproduction: Evolutionary Psychology needs to acknowledge the rapid changes in reproduction practices and lifestyle, which are driven by technological advancements, not just biological evolution.
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Description
Explore the foundational concepts of personality psychology, including the debates around human nature, trait psychology, and evolutionary mechanisms. Understand the nomothetic approach and the impact of biological factors on personality development through various key theories. This quiz will deepen your knowledge of how personality is interpreted across cultures.
