United States Foreign Relations Midterm

Balance of Power

• After WWII, world power dynamics became bipolar, primarily dominated by the U.S. and the Soviet Union.
• Unipolarity is the current state of global power balance since the Cold War's conclusion.

U.S. Power Paradox

• The U.S. faces a paradox: its global dominion is limited by the same forces that aided its rise.

Economic Globalization Characteristics

• Information technology, emerging economies, and global value chains linking production across multiple nations are pivotal in globalization.

Long Cycle Theory

• This theory posits that imperial powers grow, peak, and eventually weaken, influenced by technological and military advancements that smaller powers leverage.

Globalization Defined

• Describes the integration of national markets into a world economy, reducing political barriers to commerce.

Issues with Globalization

• Key problems include cultural diversity erosion, environmental degradation, social inequality, and labor exploitation.

American Exceptionalism

• Reflects a belief in national superiority, encapsulated in the narrative of the U.S. as a "city upon a hill."

U.S. Military Spending

• Military expenditure is around $610 billion, constituting about one-third of worldwide military spending, and was listed as $934 billion in 2020-21.

U.S. Advantage in Global Leadership

• Much of the U.S. global leadership stems from its economic strength.

Soft Power Concept

• Refers to the ability of a nation to influence others through appeal and attraction based on political and cultural values.

Acceleration of Globalization

• The internet revolution is identified as a key driver in speeding up globalization in the 20th century.

Challenges to U.S. Power

• Four notable challenges include rejection of globalization, a shifting global power balance, and economic disparities among nations.

Historical Context of Globalization

• Great Britain led the way in economic globalization during the 19th century.

National Style in Foreign Relations

• Defines the unique cultural influences shaping a country's identity and approach to international relations.

Primacy in Military Realm

• The United States possesses unparalleled dominance in the military domain.

Impact of the Vietnam War

• The "Vietnam syndrome" denotes national self-doubt following the war, undermining U.S. confidence in its moral standing and global primacy.

Technology's Influence on Adversaries

• Advancements in technology empower U.S. adversaries, exemplified by cyber threats from Russian hackers against various sectors.

Benign Hegemony

• A type of hegemony that promotes global stability, curbing conflicts and shouldering security and economic development costs.

Cultural Imperialism

• Defined by the global spread of American culture, including fashion, music, and media influences.

Imperial Overstretch Example

• Historically evident, great powers, such as the Roman and British Empires, expanded to a point of unmanageable commitments, leading to decline.

Command of the Commons

• This refers to U.S. preeminence in maritime, aerial, and spatial domains essential for national security.

Détente as a Policy

• Aimed to ease U.S.-Soviet tensions during the Cold War by fostering cooperation and arms control dialogues.

Collective Security Concept

• Envisions a system where states pledge mutual defense, historically exemplified by the League of Nations.

Eisenhower's "New Look" Policy

• A security strategy emphasizing nuclear deterrence and forming alliances to counter Soviet expansion.

The Roosevelt Corollary

• An extension of the Monroe Doctrine, granting the U.S. authority as an "international police power" in the Western Hemisphere.

The Marshall Plan

• A U.S. initiative post-WWII, providing economic assistance to rebuild European nations and promote political stability.

League of Nations Formation

• Established after WWI to mediate international disputes and prevent future conflicts.

Vietnam Syndrome's Long-term Effects

• Resulted in reluctance for open-ended military engagements and contributed to a shift in foreign policy post-Vietnam.

Cognitive Closure in Decision-Making

• Occurs when policymakers prioritize swift decisions over comprehensive analysis of alternatives, leading to potential misjudgments.

Iron Triangle in Foreign Policy

• Describes the interplay between governmental agencies, interest groups, and congressional committees influencing foreign policy formulation.

Rational Choice Theory in Foreign Policy

• Views policymakers as rational actors evaluating costs and benefits when making foreign policy decisions.

Addressing Global Environmental Issues

• The Kyoto Protocol aimed for substantial reductions in greenhouse gas emissions, notably not ratified by the U.S.

Historical Shift from Containment to Détente

• Occurred due to crises in the late 60s and early 70s, leading to a reevaluation of U.S. foreign policy strategies toward the Soviet Union.

Bureaucratic Politics Model

• Highlights competition among agencies in the U.S. executive branch as influencing foreign policy decisions.

Social Constructivism in Understanding Policy

• Emphasizes insights drawn from media and presidential rhetoric in shaping foreign policy perceptions.

Groupthink in Decision-Making

• Describes collective decision-making that suppresses dissent and emphasizes group morale, which can lead to poor policy outcomes.### Geopolitics
• Geopolitics explores the influence of geographic factors on international politics and relations.

Constructivist Theory

• Identity is a central aspect of constructivist theory, shaping national interests and policies.

Liberal Theory

• Liberal theory highlights that issues transcending national boundaries foster interdependence, promoting cooperation among governments.

Structural Realism

• Structural realists view governments as unitary actors, emphasizing a singular approach to global challenges.

Dominant Theory of International Politics

• Realism is recognized as the primary theory focused on conflict among nations.

Assumptions of Realism

• Realism posits a theory where global anarchy leads to distrust and emphasizes balance of power as crucial for world peace.
• Nation-states are regarded as the principal actors, holding supreme authority over their territories without higher political oversight.

Two-Level Game Concept

• Policymakers negotiate simultaneously with foreign counterparts and domestic stakeholders, reflecting a decentralized U.S. foreign policy structure.

Iron Triangle

• The iron triangle is a collaboration between influential interest groups, congressional committees, and executive agencies, excluding broader participation in policy decisions.
• The U.S. defense industry exemplifies this concept, as highlighted by President Eisenhower.

Structural Realism vs. Liberal Theory

• Both theories agree on the anarchic nature of the international system, which leads to power-oriented and often violent world politics.

Foreign Policy Decision-Making

• Decision-making analysis is crucial for addressing "why" questions in foreign policy.

Bureaucratic Politics Model

• The bureaucratic politics model emphasizes competition among various government agencies impacting foreign policy outcomes.

Organizational Culture

• Organizational culture comprises shared values and goals within government agencies, often causing conflicts due to diverse agency cultures.

U.S. Foreign Policy Bureaucracy

• The U.S. foreign policy bureaucracy consists of four complexes: diplomatic, security, economic affairs, and intelligence, remaining fragmented despite efforts for centralization.

Bounded Rationality

• Policymakers operate within bounded rationality, managing personal and institutional constraints in foreign policy.

President Wilson's Influence

• President Wilson's moral perspective on foreign policy was significantly shaped by his ministerial upbringing.

Operational Code in Politics

• An operational code is formed by the combination of principled and causal beliefs guiding political behavior.

Groupthink

• Groupthink represents dysfunctional decision-making where moral righteousness and conformity pressure inhibit critical discussion.

Theory of Bolstering

• Policy decisions are often used retrospectively to reinforce claims about issues, illustrated by President Bush's rapid response post-9/11.

Social Constructivism

• Examining presidential speeches and media is characteristic of social constructivism, which interprets foreign policy through shared understandings.

Prospect Theory

• Prospect theory argues that decision-makers assess risks and benefits relative to existing conditions rather than seeking optimal results.

Political Psychology of Wilson

• Woodrow Wilson’s foreign policy was guided by a moralistic approach, reflecting his ethical convictions.

Bureaucratic Conservatism

• Unique organizational cultures in agencies discourage innovation, leading to stagnation and resistance to change.

Bureaucratic Inefficiency

• Fragmentation causes communication breakdowns, exemplified by President Trump’s use of social media, complicating clear policy messaging.