Podcast
Questions and Answers
What role do centrioles play during cell division?
What role do centrioles play during cell division?
Where does transcription occur in the cell?
Where does transcription occur in the cell?
Which organelle is responsible for photosynthesis?
Which organelle is responsible for photosynthesis?
What is the primary function of lysosomes in animal cells?
What is the primary function of lysosomes in animal cells?
Signup and view all the answers
What structural role do intermediate filaments provide in the cell?
What structural role do intermediate filaments provide in the cell?
Signup and view all the answers
In the cell membrane, what characteristic do phospholipid heads possess?
In the cell membrane, what characteristic do phospholipid heads possess?
Signup and view all the answers
Where are proteins modified and sorted after translation?
Where are proteins modified and sorted after translation?
Signup and view all the answers
Which cytoskeletal element is primarily involved in the structural support of the cell?
Which cytoskeletal element is primarily involved in the structural support of the cell?
Signup and view all the answers
What process is utilized to regenerate ATP in cells?
What process is utilized to regenerate ATP in cells?
Signup and view all the answers
In which compartment of the chloroplast does the Calvin cycle occur?
In which compartment of the chloroplast does the Calvin cycle occur?
Signup and view all the answers
Which molecule is primarily responsible for carrying electrons during photosynthesis?
Which molecule is primarily responsible for carrying electrons during photosynthesis?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the role of Rubisco in the Calvin cycle?
What is the role of Rubisco in the Calvin cycle?
Signup and view all the answers
What characteristic feature defines carboxylic acids?
What characteristic feature defines carboxylic acids?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the sequence of events in the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis?
What is the sequence of events in the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis?
Signup and view all the answers
Which functional group is characterized by a nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms?
Which functional group is characterized by a nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following statements accurately describes the process of dehydration in polymer formation?
Which of the following statements accurately describes the process of dehydration in polymer formation?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following is NOT a phase of the Calvin cycle?
Which of the following is NOT a phase of the Calvin cycle?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary purpose of photosynthesis?
What is the primary purpose of photosynthesis?
Signup and view all the answers
Which type of cells lack a membrane-bound nucleus and organelles?
Which type of cells lack a membrane-bound nucleus and organelles?
Signup and view all the answers
During which process is G3P produced?
During which process is G3P produced?
Signup and view all the answers
What distinguishes eukaryotic cells from prokaryotic cells?
What distinguishes eukaryotic cells from prokaryotic cells?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following compounds would contain a hydroxyl functional group?
Which of the following compounds would contain a hydroxyl functional group?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary difference between monomers and polymers?
What is the primary difference between monomers and polymers?
Signup and view all the answers
During hydrolysis, what happens to polymers?
During hydrolysis, what happens to polymers?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the main role of negative feedback in maintaining homeostasis?
What is the main role of negative feedback in maintaining homeostasis?
Signup and view all the answers
What happens to signal transduction if a receptor protein is mutated?
What happens to signal transduction if a receptor protein is mutated?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following statements is true about homologous chromosomes?
Which of the following statements is true about homologous chromosomes?
Signup and view all the answers
During which phase of the cell cycle does DNA replication occur?
During which phase of the cell cycle does DNA replication occur?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary function of beta-blockers in biochemical terms?
What is the primary function of beta-blockers in biochemical terms?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following best describes positive feedback?
Which of the following best describes positive feedback?
Signup and view all the answers
What structure is responsible for attaching spindle fibers during mitosis?
What structure is responsible for attaching spindle fibers during mitosis?
Signup and view all the answers
Which statement about homeostasis is correct?
Which statement about homeostasis is correct?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary purpose of recycling RuBP in the Calvin cycle?
What is the primary purpose of recycling RuBP in the Calvin cycle?
Signup and view all the answers
What happens during photorespiration?
What happens during photorespiration?
Signup and view all the answers
In long-distance signaling, how do hormones operate in animals compared to plants?
In long-distance signaling, how do hormones operate in animals compared to plants?
Signup and view all the answers
What role do second messengers play in cell communication?
What role do second messengers play in cell communication?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the function of a protein kinase in signal transduction?
What is the function of a protein kinase in signal transduction?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the outcome of the dephosphorylation process performed by protein phosphatases?
What is the outcome of the dephosphorylation process performed by protein phosphatases?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary characteristic of saturated fatty acids?
What is the primary characteristic of saturated fatty acids?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following describes paracrine signaling?
Which of the following describes paracrine signaling?
Signup and view all the answers
How does photorespiration affect photosynthesis efficiency?
How does photorespiration affect photosynthesis efficiency?
Signup and view all the answers
Which statement regarding the role of enzymes is accurate?
Which statement regarding the role of enzymes is accurate?
Signup and view all the answers
What occurs when an enzyme is subjected to temperatures beyond its optimal range?
What occurs when an enzyme is subjected to temperatures beyond its optimal range?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the effect of increasing substrate concentration on enzyme reactions?
What is the effect of increasing substrate concentration on enzyme reactions?
Signup and view all the answers
How does competitive inhibition affect enzyme activity?
How does competitive inhibition affect enzyme activity?
Signup and view all the answers
What role does the allosteric site play in enzyme function?
What role does the allosteric site play in enzyme function?
Signup and view all the answers
What happens to an enzyme if a mutation occurs in the DNA segment coding for it?
What happens to an enzyme if a mutation occurs in the DNA segment coding for it?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following best describes the structure of polysaccharides in animals?
Which of the following best describes the structure of polysaccharides in animals?
Signup and view all the answers
Study Notes
Unit 1: Functional Groups
- Hydroxyl (-OH): Characteristic of alcohols like ethanol (C₂H₅OH).
- Carbonyl (C=O): Found at the beginning or within a carbon chain like acetone (CH₃COCH₃).
- Carboxyl (COOH): A polar, weak acidic group in fatty acids and amino acids. A combination of hydroxyl and carbonyl groups. Characteristic of carboxylic acids like acetic acid (CH₃COOH).
- Amino (NH₂): Found in amines and amino acids like glycine (NH₂CH₂COOH).
Polymer Formation
- Monomers: Repeating small units forming polymers like glucose in starch and amino acids in proteins.
- Polymers: Chain-like macromolecules of similar monomers, bonded together such as starch from glucose and proteins formed by amino acids.
- Hydrolysis: A molecule breaks into two by adding water, breaking down polymers into monomers, like carbohydrate digestion into glucose.
- Dehydration: Two molecules bond together with the loss of water, forming polymers like proteins from amino acids and glucose synthesis into other sugars.
Amino Acid Monomers
- Twenty amino acid monomers make up proteins with unique R groups.
- R group determines the order of primary structure, which influences secondary and tertiary structures of the protein, and its function.
- R group interactions stabilize folding, and include polar-hydrophilic, nonpolar-hydrophobic, and charged-ionic interactions.
Lipids
- Phospholipid heads are polar-hydrophilic, while tails are nonpolar-hydrophobic.
- Phospholipids form a bilayer in cell membranes.
- Polysaccharides function as energy storage in animals through glycogen and in plants through starch; for structural support in plants, cellulose is formed.
- Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds, are straight, and solid at room temperature. Unsaturated fatty acids have double bonds, are bent, and are liquid at room temperature.
Proteins: Levels of Structure
- Primary: Linear sequence of amino acids, determined by genes, forming peptide bonds.
- Secondary: Coils and folds of a polypeptide chain, stabilized by hydrogen bonds (alpha-helices and beta-sheets).
- Tertiary: 3D structure of a polypeptide, formed by interactions of R groups, determines its conformation (hydrophobic interactions, hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds).
- Quaternary: The association of two or more polypeptide chains.
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA
- Nucleotide components: Phosphate, five-carbon sugar (ribose in RNA, deoxyribose in DNA), and a nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine in DNA; adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil in RNA).
- DNA is double-stranded, while RNA is single-stranded.
- DNA has deoxyribose sugars, while RNA has ribose sugars.
- DNA has thymine, and RNA has uracil.
Cell Components: Overview
- Location: Nucleus (and mitochondria) store genetic information.
- Functions: Carbohydrates store energy, provide structure, and participate in signalling. Lipids store energy long term, and form membranes. Nucleic acids store and transmit genetic information.
Unit 2: Cell Structure and Function
- Prokaryotes: Lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. Smaller, with circular DNA like bacteria.
- Eukaryotes: Have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. Larger, with linear DNA associated with histones, found in plants and animals.
- Centrioles & Lysosomes: Present in animal cells.
- Chloroplasts, Cell Wall, Central Vacuole: Present only in plant cells.
- Cytoskeletal Components: Microtubules and microfilaments have support and transport roles. Intermediate filaments provide structural support.
- Compartmentalization: Essential for different reactions to occur simultaneously in different locations within a cell.
Unit 3: Enzyme Activity
- Enzyme Action: Enzymes speed up reactions by lowering activation energy.
- Enzyme Components: Active site (where substrate binds), substrate (reactant), enzyme-substrate complex (temporary molecule), and products (result of reaction).
- Enzyme Regulation: Allosteric sites regulate enzyme activity.
Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity
- Temperature: Optimal temperature increases enzyme activity; too high denatures the enzyme.
- pH: Each enzyme has an optimal pH range; deviation changes shape.
- Substrate concentration: Increased substrate concentration increases reaction rate up to saturation
Unit 4: Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis
- Cellular Respiration Equation: C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + ATP Energy.
- Photosynthesis Equation: 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + Light Energy → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂.
- Photosynthesis Overview: Light-dependent reactions in thylakoid membranes convert light energy into chemical energy. Light-independent reactions (Calvin cycle) in stroma use ATP and NADPH to convert CO₂ into glucose.
- Photorespiration: Occurs when Rubisco binds to O₂ instead of CO₂, reducing photosynthesis efficiency.
- Important Molecules: NADPH (electron carrier), ATP (energy currency)
Unit 5: Signaling, Homeostasis, and Cell Reproduction
- Homeostasis: Maintaining internal stability despite external changes, crucial for cell function.
- Regulation of Cell Cycle: External and internal factors (growth factors, density-dependent inhibition, anchorage dependence) regulate cell growth, division, and repair, along with checkpoints.
- Positive Feedback: Amplifies deviations.
- Negative Feedback: Reduces or reverses deviations for homeostasis.
- Chromosome structure: Sister chromatids, centromere, kinetochore, during mitosis.
- Cell cycle Phases: Interphase, mitosis, cytokinesis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase).
- Somatic vs Gametic Cells: Somatic cells are body cells (diploid) undergoing mitosis, while gametic cells (sperm and eggs) are reproduced through meiosis.
- Checkpoint Functions: G1, G2, and M checkpoints ensure proper DNA replication and chromosome duplication before proceeding with cell division. Cancer cells evade checkpoints.
Studying That Suits You
Use AI to generate personalized quizzes and flashcards to suit your learning preferences.
Related Documents
Description
Explore the essential functional groups such as hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, and amino that play critical roles in organic chemistry. Understand how monomers combine to form polymers through processes like hydrolysis and dehydration. Test your knowledge of these foundational concepts in chemistry.
