Unit 1: Functional Groups and Polymer Formation
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Questions and Answers

What role do centrioles play during cell division?

  • They manage DNA replication.
  • They organize microtubules. (correct)
  • They facilitate cytokinesis.
  • They synthesize proteins for cell reproduction.

Where does transcription occur in the cell?

  • In the nucleus. (correct)
  • In the Golgi apparatus.
  • At the ribosomes.
  • In the cytoplasm.

Which organelle is responsible for photosynthesis?

  • Endoplasmic reticulum.
  • Mitochondria.
  • Lysosomes.
  • Chloroplasts. (correct)

What is the primary function of lysosomes in animal cells?

<p>Digesting waste materials. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What structural role do intermediate filaments provide in the cell?

<p>Providing tension resistance. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the cell membrane, what characteristic do phospholipid heads possess?

<p>They are polar-hydrophilic. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Where are proteins modified and sorted after translation?

<p>In the Golgi apparatus. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which cytoskeletal element is primarily involved in the structural support of the cell?

<p>Intermediate filaments. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What process is utilized to regenerate ATP in cells?

<p>Phosphorylation of ADP (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which compartment of the chloroplast does the Calvin cycle occur?

<p>Stroma (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which molecule is primarily responsible for carrying electrons during photosynthesis?

<p>NADPH (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of Rubisco in the Calvin cycle?

<p>To fix carbon dioxide to RuBP (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic feature defines carboxylic acids?

<p>Presence of both a hydroxyl and a carbonyl group (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the sequence of events in the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis?

<p>Excitation of chlorophyll, splitting of water, electron transport chain (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which functional group is characterized by a nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms?

<p>Amino (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements accurately describes the process of dehydration in polymer formation?

<p>It involves the elimination of water while forming a bond (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a phase of the Calvin cycle?

<p>Oxidative phosphorylation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of photosynthesis?

<p>To convert solar energy into chemical energy (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of cells lack a membrane-bound nucleus and organelles?

<p>Prokaryotic cells (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During which process is G3P produced?

<p>Reduction phase of the Calvin cycle (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes eukaryotic cells from prokaryotic cells?

<p>Eukaryotic cells possess linear DNA associated with histones (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following compounds would contain a hydroxyl functional group?

<p>Ethanol (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between monomers and polymers?

<p>Monomers are the repeating units that form polymers (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During hydrolysis, what happens to polymers?

<p>They break down into monomers (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main role of negative feedback in maintaining homeostasis?

<p>To counteract deviations from a set point (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to signal transduction if a receptor protein is mutated?

<p>The receptor cannot receive its specific ligand (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is true about homologous chromosomes?

<p>They have the same length and centromere position (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During which phase of the cell cycle does DNA replication occur?

<p>S phase (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of beta-blockers in biochemical terms?

<p>To block enzyme activity associated with adrenaline (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes positive feedback?

<p>Completes a process by amplifying a deviation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What structure is responsible for attaching spindle fibers during mitosis?

<p>Kinetochore (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about homeostasis is correct?

<p>It allows slight fluctuations as part of dynamic equilibrium (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of recycling RuBP in the Calvin cycle?

<p>To ensure continuous carbon fixation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens during photorespiration?

<p>Rubisco binds to O2 under specific conditions (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In long-distance signaling, how do hormones operate in animals compared to plants?

<p>Animal hormones are secreted into the bloodstream, while plant hormones diffuse as gases (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do second messengers play in cell communication?

<p>They relay and amplify signals from receptors to intracellular targets (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of a protein kinase in signal transduction?

<p>It adds phosphate groups to proteins to regulate their function (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the outcome of the dephosphorylation process performed by protein phosphatases?

<p>It removes phosphate groups from proteins, altering their activity (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of saturated fatty acids?

<p>They have a straight structure and no double bonds. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes paracrine signaling?

<p>Signals are released and act on nearby target cells (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does photorespiration affect photosynthesis efficiency?

<p>It reduces the efficiency by consuming ATP without producing sugar (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement regarding the role of enzymes is accurate?

<p>Enzymes lower the activation energy barrier to speed up reactions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What occurs when an enzyme is subjected to temperatures beyond its optimal range?

<p>Enzymes can become permanently denatured. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of increasing substrate concentration on enzyme reactions?

<p>It increases the reaction rate until a saturation point is reached. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does competitive inhibition affect enzyme activity?

<p>It directly prevents substrate binding to the active site. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does the allosteric site play in enzyme function?

<p>It can be used by inhibitors to change the enzyme's shape. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to an enzyme if a mutation occurs in the DNA segment coding for it?

<p>The enzyme's amino acid sequence and function may change. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the structure of polysaccharides in animals?

<p>They are long chains of monosaccharides, functioning mainly for energy storage as glycogens. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Carbonyl Group (C=O)

A functional group containing a carbon double-bonded to an oxygen atom. Found at the end or within a carbon chain, as seen in Acetone (CH3COCH3).

Hydroxyl Group (-OH)

A functional group containing a hydroxyl (-OH) group. Characteristic of alcohols like ethanol (C2H5OH).

Carboxyl Group (COOH)

A functional group composed of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom and single-bonded to a hydroxyl group. Found in carboxylic acids like acetic acid (CH3COOH).

Amino Group (NH2)

A functional group containing a nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms (NH2). Found in amines and amino acids like Glycine (NH2CH2COOH).

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Polymer

A large molecule made up of repeating smaller units called monomers. Examples include starch formed by glucose and proteins formed by amino acids.

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Monomer

The small repeating unit that makes up a polymer. Examples include glucose in starch and amino acids in proteins.

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Hydrolysis

A chemical reaction that breaks down a molecule by adding water. This breaks down polymers into monomers, such as the digestion of carbohydrates into glucose.

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Dehydration Reaction

A chemical reaction that joins two molecules together with the loss of a water molecule. This builds polymers from monomers, such as the formation of proteins from amino acids.

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What are centrioles?

Organelle that organizes microtubules during cell division.

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What are lysosomes?

Sac-like organelles containing hydrolytic enzymes that break down waste and cellular debris.

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What are chloroplasts?

Organelles responsible for photosynthesis, converting light energy into chemical energy.

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What is the cell wall?

A rigid outer layer providing structural support and protection.

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What is transcription?

The process of converting DNA into mRNA.

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What is translation?

The process of using mRNA to synthesize proteins.

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What is the cytoskeleton?

A network of protein fibers that provides structural support and allows for movement.

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What is the cell membrane?

A double layer of phospholipids that forms the boundary of the cell.

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Polysaccharides

A long chain of carbohydrates with monomer monosaccharides.

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Active Site

The region of an enzyme where the reactant (substrate) binds.

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Substrate

The reactant that an enzyme specifically acts upon.

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Enzyme-Substrate Complex

A temporary complex formed when the substrate binds to the enzyme.

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Product

The substance produced by an enzyme-catalyzed reaction.

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Allosteric Site

A site on an enzyme distinct from the active site, where non-substrate molecules can bind and influence enzymatic activity.

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Denaturation

A change in the structure of a protein, particularly an enzyme, resulting in a loss of function.

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Competitive Inhibition

An inhibitor that competes with the substrate for binding to the active site of an enzyme, thus blocking the reaction.

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Photorespiration

A process that occurs when the enzyme Rubisco binds to O2 instead of CO2, leading to a decrease in photosynthetic efficiency and no sugar production.

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Direct Contact Communication

The direct transfer of signals between cells through specialized junctions, allowing for rapid and efficient communication.

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Long-Distance Signaling

Long-distance signaling in both plants and animals, often using hormones to relay information.

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Paracrine Signaling

Signaling between nearby cells, often involving the release of growth factors.

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Synaptic Signaling

Specialized signaling used by neurons to transmit information across synapses.

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Second Messengers

Molecules that relay and amplify signals inside a cell, ensuring fast and efficient communication.

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Protein Kinase

Enzymes that add phosphate groups to proteins, often regulating their activity.

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Protein Phosphatase

Enzymes that remove phosphate groups from proteins, often deactivating or altering their activity.

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What is ATP?

The primary energy currency of cells, stored in the bonds between phosphate groups. Energy is released when a phosphate group is broken off.

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What is an autotroph?

Organisms that make their own food using energy from sunlight. Example: Plants use photosynthesis.

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What is a heterotroph?

Organisms that obtain their energy by consuming other organisms. Example: Animals eat plants or other animals.

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What is NADPH?

A molecule that carries electrons from the light-dependent reactions to the Calvin cycle. It helps to fuel glucose synthesis.

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What is photosynthesis?

The process that converts light energy into chemical energy stored in glucose. It occurs in chloroplasts and has two main stages: light-dependent and light-independent.

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What are the light-dependent reactions?

This stage occurs in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts. It uses light energy to produce ATP and NADPH.

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What are the light-independent reactions?

This stage occurs in the stroma of chloroplasts. It uses ATP and NADPH from the light-dependent reactions to convert CO2 into glucose.

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What is carbon fixation in the Calvin cycle?

The first stage of the Calvin cycle where CO2 is fixed to RuBP by Rubisco.

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Receptor protein

A type of protein that binds to specific signaling molecules (ligands) and initiates a cellular response.

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Ligand

A molecule that binds to a receptor protein and triggers a signaling cascade.

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Signaling cascade

A series of molecular events triggered by a ligand binding to a receptor, resulting in a specific cellular response.

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Homeostasis

The ability of an organism to maintain stable internal conditions despite external changes.

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Negative feedback

A mechanism that reduces or reverses deviations from a set point, maintaining homeostasis.

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Positive feedback

A mechanism that amplifies deviations from a set point, driving a process to completion.

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Sister chromatids

Identical copies of a chromosome connected at the centromere, created during DNA replication.

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Centromere

The constricted region on a chromosome where sister chromatids are joined.

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Study Notes

Unit 1: Functional Groups

  • Hydroxyl (-OH): Characteristic of alcohols like ethanol (C₂H₅OH).
  • Carbonyl (C=O): Found at the beginning or within a carbon chain like acetone (CH₃COCH₃).
  • Carboxyl (COOH): A polar, weak acidic group in fatty acids and amino acids. A combination of hydroxyl and carbonyl groups. Characteristic of carboxylic acids like acetic acid (CH₃COOH).
  • Amino (NH₂): Found in amines and amino acids like glycine (NH₂CH₂COOH).

Polymer Formation

  • Monomers: Repeating small units forming polymers like glucose in starch and amino acids in proteins.
  • Polymers: Chain-like macromolecules of similar monomers, bonded together such as starch from glucose and proteins formed by amino acids.
  • Hydrolysis: A molecule breaks into two by adding water, breaking down polymers into monomers, like carbohydrate digestion into glucose.
  • Dehydration: Two molecules bond together with the loss of water, forming polymers like proteins from amino acids and glucose synthesis into other sugars.

Amino Acid Monomers

  • Twenty amino acid monomers make up proteins with unique R groups.
  • R group determines the order of primary structure, which influences secondary and tertiary structures of the protein, and its function.
  • R group interactions stabilize folding, and include polar-hydrophilic, nonpolar-hydrophobic, and charged-ionic interactions.

Lipids

  • Phospholipid heads are polar-hydrophilic, while tails are nonpolar-hydrophobic.
  • Phospholipids form a bilayer in cell membranes.
  • Polysaccharides function as energy storage in animals through glycogen and in plants through starch; for structural support in plants, cellulose is formed.
  • Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds, are straight, and solid at room temperature. Unsaturated fatty acids have double bonds, are bent, and are liquid at room temperature.

Proteins: Levels of Structure

  • Primary: Linear sequence of amino acids, determined by genes, forming peptide bonds.
  • Secondary: Coils and folds of a polypeptide chain, stabilized by hydrogen bonds (alpha-helices and beta-sheets).
  • Tertiary: 3D structure of a polypeptide, formed by interactions of R groups, determines its conformation (hydrophobic interactions, hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds).
  • Quaternary: The association of two or more polypeptide chains.

Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA

  • Nucleotide components: Phosphate, five-carbon sugar (ribose in RNA, deoxyribose in DNA), and a nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine in DNA; adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil in RNA).
  • DNA is double-stranded, while RNA is single-stranded.
  • DNA has deoxyribose sugars, while RNA has ribose sugars.
  • DNA has thymine, and RNA has uracil.

Cell Components: Overview

  • Location: Nucleus (and mitochondria) store genetic information.
  • Functions: Carbohydrates store energy, provide structure, and participate in signalling. Lipids store energy long term, and form membranes. Nucleic acids store and transmit genetic information.

Unit 2: Cell Structure and Function

  • Prokaryotes: Lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. Smaller, with circular DNA like bacteria.
  • Eukaryotes: Have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. Larger, with linear DNA associated with histones, found in plants and animals.
  • Centrioles & Lysosomes: Present in animal cells.
  • Chloroplasts, Cell Wall, Central Vacuole: Present only in plant cells.
  • Cytoskeletal Components: Microtubules and microfilaments have support and transport roles. Intermediate filaments provide structural support.
  • Compartmentalization: Essential for different reactions to occur simultaneously in different locations within a cell.

Unit 3: Enzyme Activity

  • Enzyme Action: Enzymes speed up reactions by lowering activation energy.
  • Enzyme Components: Active site (where substrate binds), substrate (reactant), enzyme-substrate complex (temporary molecule), and products (result of reaction).
  • Enzyme Regulation: Allosteric sites regulate enzyme activity.

Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity

  • Temperature: Optimal temperature increases enzyme activity; too high denatures the enzyme.
  • pH: Each enzyme has an optimal pH range; deviation changes shape.
  • Substrate concentration: Increased substrate concentration increases reaction rate up to saturation

Unit 4: Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis

  • Cellular Respiration Equation: C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + ATP Energy.
  • Photosynthesis Equation: 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + Light Energy → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂.
  • Photosynthesis Overview: Light-dependent reactions in thylakoid membranes convert light energy into chemical energy. Light-independent reactions (Calvin cycle) in stroma use ATP and NADPH to convert CO₂ into glucose.
  • Photorespiration: Occurs when Rubisco binds to O₂ instead of CO₂, reducing photosynthesis efficiency.
  • Important Molecules: NADPH (electron carrier), ATP (energy currency)

Unit 5: Signaling, Homeostasis, and Cell Reproduction

  • Homeostasis: Maintaining internal stability despite external changes, crucial for cell function.
  • Regulation of Cell Cycle: External and internal factors (growth factors, density-dependent inhibition, anchorage dependence) regulate cell growth, division, and repair, along with checkpoints.
  • Positive Feedback: Amplifies deviations.
  • Negative Feedback: Reduces or reverses deviations for homeostasis.
  • Chromosome structure: Sister chromatids, centromere, kinetochore, during mitosis.
  • Cell cycle Phases: Interphase, mitosis, cytokinesis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase).
  • Somatic vs Gametic Cells: Somatic cells are body cells (diploid) undergoing mitosis, while gametic cells (sperm and eggs) are reproduced through meiosis.
  • Checkpoint Functions: G1, G2, and M checkpoints ensure proper DNA replication and chromosome duplication before proceeding with cell division. Cancer cells evade checkpoints.

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Explore the essential functional groups such as hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, and amino that play critical roles in organic chemistry. Understand how monomers combine to form polymers through processes like hydrolysis and dehydration. Test your knowledge of these foundational concepts in chemistry.

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