Understanding Tumors and Cancer Spread
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Questions and Answers

Which symptom is NOT associated with systemic issues due to high potassium levels?

  • Nausea (correct)
  • Seizures
  • Irregular heartbeats
  • Fatigue

What is a potential consequence of hyperphosphatemia?

  • Low calcium levels (correct)
  • Increased muscle cramps
  • Irregular heartbeats
  • Dehydration

What is the primary role of allopurinol in patient management?

  • Prevent uric acid buildup (correct)
  • Increase calcium absorption
  • Reduce potassium levels rapidly
  • Treat kidney failure directly

Which step is correctly sequenced in the lifecycle of a retrovirus?

<p>Entry -&gt; Reverse transcription -&gt; Integration (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What enzyme is crucial for the process of a retrovirus converting RNA into DNA?

<p>Reverse transcriptase (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a lab finding in managing electrolyte imbalances?

<p>Complete blood count (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the viral DNA integrate into the host cell's genome during retroviral infection?

<p>With the help of integrase (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What symptom would indicate a problem with kidney function?

<p>Flank pain (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of tumor suppressor genes in normal cells?

<p>They act as brakes on the cell cycle. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes proto-oncogenes?

<p>Normal genes that promote controlled cell growth. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to proto-oncogenes when they mutate or are overexpressed?

<p>They become oncogenes. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do tumor suppressor genes contribute to cancer prevention?

<p>By halting the cell cycle when damage is irreparable. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of mutations are commonly associated with oncogenes?

<p>Gain-of-function mutations. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of a tumor suppressor gene like p53?

<p>It induces apoptosis when necessary. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a function of proto-oncogenes?

<p>They act as an apoptotic signal. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the impact of loss-of-function mutations in tumor suppressor genes?

<p>They promote genomic instability. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary mechanism of action of misoprostol?

<p>Promotes bicarbonate and mucus secretion (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a common adverse drug reaction (ADR) of antacids?

<p>Hypercalcemia (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the duration characteristic of acute pain?

<p>Usually lasting less than 3-6 months (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which opioid receptor are endorphins primarily associating with in modulating pain?

<p>Opioid receptors (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of pain do A-Delta fibers primarily transmit?

<p>Sharp and well localized (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect do endorphins have on pain perception?

<p>They help to inhibit the transmission of pain signals (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why should antacids be separated from other medications by at least 2 hours?

<p>To prevent interference with absorption of other medications (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what condition is misoprostol contraindicated?

<p>Pregnancy (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the primary signs and symptoms of appendicitis?

<p>Epigastric pain shifting to RLQ and rebound tenderness (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which treatment is most appropriate for a complete bowel obstruction?

<p>NG tube decompression and fluid replacement (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What emergency intervention is necessary for suspected appendicitis?

<p>Immediate surgery if rupture is suspected (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the mechanism of action of proton pump inhibitors (PPIs)?

<p>Inhibit the H+/K+ ATPase pump in gastric parietal cells (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which side effects may occur with long-term use of proton pump inhibitors?

<p>Hypomagnesemia, vitamin B12 deficiency, and osteoporosis (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the management of cholecystitis, what is the primary treatment option for recurrent cases?

<p>Cholecystectomy (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What common symptom is associated with diverticulitis?

<p>Pain in the lower abdomen, often on the left side (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What should be done if renal impairment is suspected in a patient taking ranitidine?

<p>Adjust the dosage to avoid complications (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key reason why HIV infection does not kill people directly?

<p>HIV weakens the immune system, making individuals susceptible to other infections. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following are key adverse effects associated with Fusion Inhibitors like Enfuvirtide?

<p>Injection site reactions and increased risk of bacterial pneumonia. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of CCR5 Antagonists in HIV treatment?

<p>Block the CCR5 co-receptor to prevent viral entry. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are common symptoms of Peptic Ulcer Disease (PUD)?

<p>Epigastric pain that may improve with food. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a potential treatment for Liver Disease?

<p>Use of diuretics for fluid control. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What should individuals with Peptic Ulcer Disease avoid as part of ongoing management?

<p>NSAIDs. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does a decline in CD4 cells lead to AIDS?

<p>It weakens the immune system, rendering the body defenseless against infections. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common emergency intervention for severe cases of Peptic Ulcer Disease?

<p>Surgery for bleeding or perforated ulcers. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a defining characteristic of chronic pain?

<p>It lasts longer than 3-6 months. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of pain is characterized by being diffuse and deep?

<p>Visceral pain (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary treatment goal for managing chronic pain?

<p>Improving function and quality of life (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of pain is associated with damage or dysfunction to nerves?

<p>Neuropathic pain (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are first-line treatments for somatic pain?

<p>NSAIDs and acetaminophen (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which pain type is often linked to psychological factors such as depression?

<p>Chronic pain (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Referred pain is defined as pain perceived at a location different from its source. What is an example of referred pain?

<p>Pain in the arm during a heart attack (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which symptom is NOT typically associated with chronic pain?

<p>Acute injury (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Retrovirus

A virus using RNA as its genetic material and reverse transcriptase to turn RNA into DNA.

Reverse Transcriptase

Enzyme that retroviruses use to convert RNA into DNA.

Provirus

Integrated viral DNA in the host cell's genome.

Retrovirus Lifecycle: Entry

Virus attaches to host cell and enters.

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Retrovirus Lifecycle: Reverse transcription

Viral RNA is changed to DNA using reverse transcriptase.

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Hyperkalemia

High potassium levels in the blood

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Hypocalcemia

Low calcium levels in the blood.

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Hyperuricemia

High levels of uric acid in the blood

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Proto-oncogenes

Normal genes that regulate cell growth and division.

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Oncogenes

Mutated or overactive forms of proto-oncogenes that drive uncontrolled cell growth.

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Tumor Suppressor Genes

Genes that act as brakes on cell growth and initiate DNA repair.

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Proto-oncogene activation

Process where a proto-oncogene is mutated, amplified, or involved in chromosomal changes to become an oncogene.

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Tumor suppressor inactivation

The process where tumor suppressor gene activity is lost due to mutation, deletion, or loss of heterozygosity, which contributes to uncontrolled cell growth.

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Cell cycle progression

Normal series of events that lead to cell division.

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Role of p53

A tumor suppressor gene that monitors cell health and initiates DNA repair or apoptosis.

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BRCA genes

Tumor suppressor genes involved in DNA repair, crucial for preventing certain cancers.

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HIV's role in death

HIV does not directly kill people; instead, it weakens the immune system, leading to opportunistic infections and complications that cause death.

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CD4 cell function

CD4 cells are immune cells that help the body fight infections. When their numbers decrease, the immune system weakens.

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Opportunistic infections

Infections that take advantage of a weakened immune system.

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Peptic Ulcer Disease (PUD) symptoms

Epigastric pain, possibly relieved by food or antacids (especially duodenal ulcers).

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PUD treatment

Reducing acid secretion, antibiotics for H. pylori, lifestyle changes.

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Liver disease signs

Jaundice, ascites, portal hypertension, hepatic encephalopathy, varices.

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Liver disease treatment

Treat underlying cause (e.g., alcohol, hepatitis), diuretics, and low-protein diets if needed.

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Fusion Inhibitors (HIV)

Prevent HIV from entering host cells, blocking viral entry.

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Appendicitis Symptoms

Pain in the belly, usually starting around the belly button and moving to the lower right side, tenderness when pressed, and fever.

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Bowel Obstruction Symptoms

Swollen stomach, stomach cramps, sickness, and trouble going to the bathroom. Symptoms can worsen without treatment.

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Cholecystitis Treatment

Medications to treat pain and infection; surgery may be needed if the symptoms continue or worsen.

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Diverticulitis Treatment

Antibiotics and resting the bowel; surgery is considered in severe cases.

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PPI MOA

Stops stomach acid production to heal ulcers and treat heartburn.

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H2 Receptor Blocker MOA

Blocks the effect of histamine on stomach acid production.

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PPI Considerations

Take before meals, used for GERD ulcers, H.pylori (with antibiotics).

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H2 Blocker Considerations

Take at bedtime; avoid in kidney issues without adjustment.

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Misoprostol MOA

Increases mucosal defense by promoting bicarbonate and mucus secretion, reducing gastric acid secretion.

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Antacid MOA

Neutralizes gastric acid, increasing gastric pH.

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Endorphin effect on pain

Inhibit pain signals in the spinal cord, activate descending pain pathways lowering pain perception.

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Acute pain characteristics

Short-term pain signaling potential tissue damage; sudden onset, clear cause with autonomic responses like increased heart rate.

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Pain transmission (A-Delta)

Sharp, well-localized pain signals.

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Pain transmission (C-Fibers)

Dull, aching, poorly localized pain signals.

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Acute pain treatment goal

Identify and treat the underlying cause, provide pain relief.

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Antacid interaction concern

Separate from other medications by at least 2 hours to avoid interference with absorption and possibly cause acid rebound.

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Chronic Pain

Pain that lasts longer than expected healing time or occurs without an identifiable acute injury; considered a disease.

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Somatic Pain

Pain originating from skin, muscles, bones, or connective tissue.

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Visceral Pain

Pain from internal organs; often cramping, deep, or aching.

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Referred Pain

Pain felt in a different location than the source of the problem.

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Neuropathic Pain

Pain caused by nerve damage or malfunction; often described as burning, shooting, or tingling.

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Peripheral Pain

Pain originating from nerves outside the central nervous system.

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Central Pain

Pain resulting from a problem in the central nervous system like the brain or spinal cord

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Treatment Goal for Chronic Pain

Manage pain, improve function, and enhance quality of life.

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Study Notes

Benign Tumors

  • Not cancerous.
  • Movable.
  • Encapsulated.
  • Grow slowly and do not spread to other parts of the body.
  • Cells look similar to normal cells.
  • Examples: Lipoma, Leiomyoma

Malignant Tumors (Cancerous)

  • Grow quickly and invade nearby tissues.
  • Fixed; will not move.
  • Can spread (metastasize) to distant body parts.
  • Cells often look abnormal and poorly organized.
  • Examples: Carcinoma, Adenocarcinoma, Sarcoma, Lymphoma, Leukemia.
  • Carcinoma in Situ: Early-stage cancer that hasn't invaded deeper tissues; may remain unchanged, progress to invasive cancer, or disappear.

Cancer Spread (Metastasis)

  • Invasion: Cancer cells grow into nearby areas.
  • Metastasis: Cancer cells travel through blood or lymph to other parts of the body, forming new tumors.

Metastasis Sites for Selected Cancers

  • Skin Melanoma → Brain Metastases
  • Breast Cancer → Lung, Liver, Bone & Brain Metastases
  • Lung Cancer → Bone, Adrenal Gland, & Brain Metastases
  • Ovarian Cancer → Pleura & Liver Metastases
  • Colorectal Cancer → Liver Metastases
  • Pancreatic Cancer → Lung & Liver Metastases

Tobacco Use

  • Impact: Leading preventable cause of cancer; highly carcinogenic.
  • Cancers linked: Lung, mouth, throat, esophagus, pancreas, kidney, bladder, liver, cervix, colon, rectum, acute leukemia
  • Secondhand Smoke: Exposure increases lung cancer risk.

Diet and Nutrition

  • Carcinogenic Foods: Diets high in red and processed meats linked to colorectal cancer risk.
  • Protective Foods: Fruits, vegetables, and whole grains contain antioxidants and fiber, which can lower cancer risk.

Food Contaminants

  • Toxic chemicals and mutagenic agents in food (preservatives, charred meats) contribute to cancer risk.

Obesity

  • Mechanism: Excess body fat leads to increased insulin and hormones (estrogen), promoting cancer cell growth.
  • Cancers linked: Endometrial, colorectal, kidney, esophageal, breast (postmenopausal), and pancreatic cancers.
  • Outcome: Obesity correlates with poorer prognoses and higher recurrence rates.

Alcohol Consumption

  • Classification: Alcohol is a human carcinogen.
  • Risk Synergy: Combination with tobacco greatly increases cancers of the upper digestive and respiratory tracts.
  • Cancers linked: Oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, esophagus, liver, colorectal, and breast cancer.

Physical Inactivity

  • Mechanism: Regular exercise helps regulate hormones, maintain healthy weight, and support immune function, lowering cancer risk.
  • Link: Physical inactivity increases risks of breast, colorectal, and endometrial cancers.

Infections

  • Viruses and Bacteria:
  • Human Papillomavirus (HPV): Strongly linked to cervical, anal, oropharyngeal, and other genital cancers.
  • Hepatitis B and C: Associated with liver cancer.
  • Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori): Linked to stomach cancer.
  • Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV): Associated with nasopharyngeal cancer and certain lymphomas.
  • Parasitic Infections: Some parasites are associated with cancer risk in specific regions (e.g., schistosomiasis linked to bladder cancer).

Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation

  • Source: Primarily the sun's UV-A and UV-B rays.
  • Cancers linked: Skin cancers (basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, melanoma).

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Description

This quiz covers the types of tumors, distinguishing between benign and malignant forms, and the process of cancer metastasis. You'll learn about characteristics, examples, and the pathways through which cancer spreads in the body. Test your knowledge on these critical aspects of cancer biology.

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