Understanding the Scientific Method and its Alternatives

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Questions and Answers

What is the primary limitation of the Method of Tenacity?

It lacks a mechanism for correcting wrong ideas.

What is the primary advantage of the Scientific Method?

It produces better-quality answers with higher confidence.

Which method is commonly used for making personal choices?

Method of Intuition

What is the primary difference between the Method of Intuition and the Scientific Method?

One is quick and the other is time-consuming. Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of the persistence of superstitions in the Method of Tenacity?

It leads to the persistence of inaccurate information. Signup and view all the answers

What is the basis of part of our intuition?

Subtle cues from people around us. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main reason why the Method of Tenacity is limited in its ability to obtain accurate information?

Because it lacks a mechanism for correcting wrong ideas Signup and view all the answers

Which method is most likely to be influenced by subtle cues from people around us?

Method of Intuition Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary advantage of the Method of Authority?

It seeks out an authority on the subject Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between the Method of Intuition and the Method of Tenacity?

One is based on habit, while the other is based on gut feeling Signup and view all the answers

Why is the Method of Intuition limited in its ability to obtain accurate information?

Because it has no mechanism for separating accurate from inaccurate information Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic that distinguishes the Scientific Method from the other methods?

It provides a mechanism for correcting wrong ideas Signup and view all the answers

What is the main drawback of relying on the assumed expertise of another person?

It may not always provide accurate information due to bias or subjective opinion Signup and view all the answers

What is the potential flaw in accepting an expert's statement without question?

All of the above Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of evaluating the source of information when using the method of authority?

To verify the expert's area of expertise Signup and view all the answers

What is the limitation of the rational method in determining the truth of a conclusion?

The premises may not be true, making the conclusion invalid Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between the method of authority and the rational method?

The method of authority relies on an expert's opinion, while the rational method relies on logical deduction Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of getting a second opinion when using the method of authority?

To increase confidence in the information obtained Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of reviewing other studies on the relationship between pain and swearing?

To identify variables that influence the relationship Signup and view all the answers

What is the outcome of using deductive reasoning in the scientific method?

Reaching a specific conclusion from a general statement Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of a testable prediction in the scientific method?

It must be possible to demonstrate its correctness or incorrectness Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between deductive and inductive reasoning?

Deductive reasoning uses general statements, while inductive reasoning uses specific examples Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of making systematic, planned observations in the scientific method?

To evaluate the prediction Signup and view all the answers

What is the outcome of a hypothesis in the scientific method?

Multiple testable predictions, each referring to a specific event Signup and view all the answers

What is the main issue with the argument '“Violent contact in football games causes concussions.” “John has a concussion.” “Therefore, John experienced violent contact in a football game.”'?

It is not logically valid Signup and view all the answers

What is the main limitation of the empirical method?

All of the above Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary advantage of using the rational method?

It is faster and easier than the empirical method Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of hypotheses in the scientific method?

To generate a testable prediction Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between the empirical method and the scientific method?

The scientific method combines different methods of acquiring knowledge Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of Step 1 in the scientific method?

To make informal observations Signup and view all the answers

What is the main issue with inductive reasoning?

It reaches conclusions beyond the actual observations Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of variables in the scientific method?

To explain the relationship between characteristics Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of Step 5 in the scientific method?

To compare the actual observations with the predictions made from the hypothesis Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary advantage of using the method of authority?

It is safer than the empirical method Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for keeping the experimenter uninformed about the details of the study to reduce the influence of researcher's expectations?

Blinding Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of the scientific method that allows others to verify the findings?

Public Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between a hypothesis and a conclusion?

A hypothesis is a tentative answer, while a conclusion is a final answer Signup and view all the answers

What is the outcome of the scientific method when there is a lack of agreement between the observations and the predictions?

The hypothesis is refuted Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason for making observations public in the scientific method?

To allow others to evaluate and replicate the study Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of the scientific method that involves structured and systematic observation?

Empirical Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the repetition of the same step-by-step process to verify the findings?

Replication Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of the scientific method?

To support or refute a hypothesis Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of the scientific method that involves the avoidance of personal biases and expectations?

Objective Signup and view all the answers

What is the outcome of the scientific method when there is good agreement between the observations and the predictions?

The hypothesis is supported Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic that distinguishes the Method of Tenacity from other methods?

It involves holding on to ideas and beliefs simply because they have been accepted as facts for a long time Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason why the Method of Intuition is limited in its ability to obtain accurate information?

It has no mechanism for separating accurate from inaccurate information Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary advantage of using the Method of Authority?

It involves seeking out an authority on the subject Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary limitation of the Method of Empiricism?

It is not mentioned in the provided text Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of the Method of Tenacity that can lead to the persistence of superstitions?

It involves holding on to ideas and beliefs simply because they have been accepted as facts for a long time Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between the Method of Intuition and the Method of Authority?

One involves seeking out an authority on the subject, while the other relies on personal feelings Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason why experts' opinions may not always be accurate?

Because experts can be biased and may have subjective opinions Signup and view all the answers

What is the limitation of the rational method in determining the truth of a conclusion?

The conclusion is only true if the premises are true Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of evaluating the source of information when using the method of authority?

To assess the accuracy of the information Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between the method of authority and the rational method?

The method of authority relies on expert opinions, while the rational method relies on logical reasoning Signup and view all the answers

What is the potential pitfall of accepting an expert's statement without question?

All of the above Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary advantage of seeking a second opinion when using the method of authority?

It increases confidence in the information Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason why our perceptions can be drastically altered?

Prior knowledge and expectations Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between the scientific method and the empirical method?

The scientific method involves formulating specific questions and then systematically finding answers Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary limitation of using the rational method?

It may not lead to a logically valid conclusion Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of evaluating the hypothesis in the scientific method?

To test the hypothesis and critically evaluate it Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of inductive reasoning?

It reaches a general conclusion based on a few specific examples Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary disadvantage of using the method of authority?

It is influenced by the assumed expertise of another person Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason why people tend to generalize beyond their actual observations?

They use inductive reasoning Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary advantage of combining different methods of acquiring knowledge?

It helps to avoid the pitfalls of the individual methods Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary limitation of the empirical method in determining the truth of a conclusion?

It can be influenced by prior knowledge and expectations Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of Step 2 in the scientific method?

To identify factors associated with the observation and formulate a hypothesis Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of using operational definitions in research?

To indirectly measure the external manifestations of a construct Signup and view all the answers

What is a limitation of operational definitions?

They may not capture the entire construct, leaving out important components Signup and view all the answers

Why is it important to consult previous research when using operational definitions?

To make the results directly comparable to previous research Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of an indirect method of measuring a construct?

All of the above Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the process of keeping the experimenter uninformed about the details of the study to reduce the influence of researcher's expectations?

Blinding Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential problem with operational definitions?

They may include extra components that are not part of the construct Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of step 5 in the scientific method, in the context of hypothesis testing?

To compare the actual observations with the predictions made from the hypothesis Signup and view all the answers

What is the main characteristic of the scientific method that distinguishes it from other methods?

It involves structured and systematic observation Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of theories in psychological research?

To explain and predict behavior by organizing different observations and relationships Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary advantage of making observations public in the scientific method?

It enables others to verify the findings and replicate the study Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary disadvantage of the empirical method?

It lacks structured and systematic observation Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of variables in the scientific method?

To evaluate the differences or changes in characteristics or conditions Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of the scientific method in relation to personal biases and expectations?

To minimize the influence of personal biases and expectations on the outcome Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary outcome of the scientific method when there is a lack of agreement between the observations and the predictions?

The hypothesis is rejected and a new one is formed Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between the scientific method and the method of authority?

The scientific method involves structured and systematic observation, while the method of authority does not Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of the 'Method' section in a scientific journal article?

To describe the step-by-step process used to collect the data Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of reviewing other studies in the scientific method?

To identify potential variables that could influence the relationship between pain and swearing Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of deductive reasoning in the scientific method?

It uses a general statement as the basis for reaching a conclusion about specific examples Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of making a testable prediction in the scientific method?

To demonstrate that the hypothesis is either correct or incorrect Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between induction and deduction in the scientific method?

Induction uses specific examples to generate conclusions, while deduction uses general statements to generate specific predictions Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of Step 3 in the scientific method?

To generate a testable prediction from the hypothesis Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of a hypothesis in the scientific method?

It is a universal premise statement Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason for the indirect connection between a construct and its measurement in operational definitions?

There is no one-to-one relationship between the construct and the measurement Signup and view all the answers

What is the main advantage of consulting previous research when using operational definitions?

It ensures that the results are directly comparable to past research Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary consequence of operational definitions leaving out important components of a construct?

The measurement may not accurately reflect the construct Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason for including different procedures to measure a construct in operational definitions?

To reduce the problem of operational definitions leaving out important components Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary consequence of operational definitions including extra components that are not part of the construct?

The measurement may be influenced by external factors Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary advantage of using multiple procedures to measure a construct in operational definitions?

It provides a more comprehensive understanding of the construct Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of variables that can be measured in research?

They are well-defined and directly observable Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of operational definitions in research?

To measure external, observable events indirectly Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of constructs in psychological theories?

They are influenced by external stimuli and can influence external behaviors Signup and view all the answers

Why are tangible, concrete attributes often used in research?

Because they are easy to measure and observe Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between external stimuli and constructs?

External stimuli influence constructs, which then influence external behaviors Signup and view all the answers

Why are indirect methods of measurement used in research?

Because they are necessary when direct measurement is not possible Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Non-Scientific Approaches to Acquiring Knowledge

Method of Tenacity: holding on to ideas and beliefs simply because they have been accepted as facts for a long time
- Based on habit or superstition
- Problem: information acquired might not be accurate; no mechanism for correcting wrong ideas
- Examples: persistence of superstitions (lucky socks, lucky pencil)
Method of Intuition: accepting information as true because it "feels right"
- Relying on hunches and "instinct" to answer questions
- Uses gut feeling to make personal choices and resolve ethical and moral questions
- Part of intuition based on subtle cues from people around us
- Quick way to obtain answers, but no mechanism for separating accurate from inaccurate information
Method of Authority: finding answers by seeking out an authority on the subject
- Quick and easy way to obtain answers, but may not always provide accurate information
- Pitfalls: authorities can be biased, sources may be biased, and not all "experts" are experts
- To increase confidence in information: evaluate the source, evaluate the information itself, and consider a second opinion

The Rational Method

Also known as "rationalism"
Involves seeking answers by logical reasoning
Begins with a set of known facts and uses logic to reach a conclusion
Conclusion is guaranteed to be correct if premise statements are true and logic is sound
Limitation: conclusion is not necessarily true unless both premise statements are true

The Empirical Method

Also known as "empiricism"
Attempts to answer questions by direct observation or experience
Provides an easy and direct way to answer questions
Limitations: perceptions can be altered by prior knowledge, expectations, feelings, or beliefs; can be time-consuming or dangerous

The Scientific Method

Combines elements from other methods to produce a general technique that avoids their limitations
Tends to be more complicated and time-consuming, but obtains better-quality answers
Steps:
1. Observe behavior or other phenomena
2. Form a tentative answer or explanation (hypothesis)
3. Use the hypothesis to generate a testable prediction
4. Evaluate the prediction by making systematic, planned observations
5. Use the observations to support, refute, or refine the original hypothesis
3 important principles:
- Empirical: answers are obtained by making observations
- Public: observations (data) are available for evaluation by others
- Objective: observations are structured to avoid researcher's biases and beliefs

Key Concepts

Variables: characteristics or conditions that change, or have different values for different individuals
Hypothesis: a statement that explains a relationship among variables
Theory: a set of hypothetical mechanisms and intangible elements that help organize observations and predict behavior
Constructs: intangible, abstract attributes that play important roles in psychological theories### Methods of Acquiring Knowledge
Consulting an expert directly: relying on the assumed expertise of another person (e.g. physicians, scientists, psychologists, professors, lawyers)
- Pitfalls: biased information, lack of true expertise, and unquestioned acceptance of authority
Evaluating the source of information:
- Is the "authority" really an expert?
- Is the information within their area of expertise?
- Is the information objective fact or subjective opinion?
Evaluating the information itself:
- Does the information seem reasonable?
- Does it agree with other information you already know?
- If in doubt, seek a second opinion

The Rational Method

Also known as "rationalism"
Involves seeking answers by logical reasoning
Begins with a set of known facts and uses logic to reach a conclusion
Limitations: premises may not be true, and people are not good at logical reasoning
Example: "Violent contact in football games causes concussions." "John has a concussion." "Therefore, John experienced violent contact in a football game."

The Empirical Method

Also known as "empiricism"
Attempts to answer questions and obtain knowledge by direct observation or experience
Limitations: perceptions can be altered by prior knowledge, expectations, feelings, or beliefs, and may be time-consuming or dangerous
Example: watching the sun rise and set to conclude that the sun must travel in a huge circle around the earth

The Scientific Method

Combines different methods to avoid pitfalls
Steps:
1. Observe behavior or phenomena, begins with informal observations
2. Form a tentative answer or explanation (hypothesis)
3. Use the hypothesis to generate a testable prediction
4. Evaluate the prediction by making systematic, planned observations
5. Use the observations to support, refute, or refine the original hypothesis

Observations and Hypotheses

Inductive reasoning: reaching a general conclusion based on a few specific examples
Identifying factors (variables) associated with the observation
Hypothesis: a statement that explains a relationship among variables
- Not a final answer, but a proposal to be tested and critically evaluated

Operational Definitions

Defining and measuring variables using indirect methods
Example: IQ test measures external behavior, which is used as a definition and measurement of intelligence
Limitations: may not capture the entire construct, and may include extra components that are not part of the construct
Importance of using established operational definitions to ensure comparability of results

Variables and Constructs

Variables: characteristics or conditions that change or have different values for different individuals
Constructs: hypothetical mechanisms and intangible elements that influence behavior
Theories: help organize observations and explain behavior
Examples: motivation, self-esteem, and rewards → motivation → performance

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