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Questions and Answers
What is the primary limitation of the Method of Tenacity?
What is the primary advantage of the Scientific Method?
Which method is commonly used for making personal choices?
What is the primary difference between the Method of Intuition and the Scientific Method?
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What is the result of the persistence of superstitions in the Method of Tenacity?
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What is the basis of part of our intuition?
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What is the main reason why the Method of Tenacity is limited in its ability to obtain accurate information?
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Which method is most likely to be influenced by subtle cues from people around us?
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What is the primary advantage of the Method of Authority?
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What is the main difference between the Method of Intuition and the Method of Tenacity?
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Why is the Method of Intuition limited in its ability to obtain accurate information?
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What is the primary characteristic that distinguishes the Scientific Method from the other methods?
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What is the main drawback of relying on the assumed expertise of another person?
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What is the potential flaw in accepting an expert's statement without question?
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What is the primary goal of evaluating the source of information when using the method of authority?
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What is the limitation of the rational method in determining the truth of a conclusion?
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What is the primary difference between the method of authority and the rational method?
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What is the purpose of getting a second opinion when using the method of authority?
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What is the purpose of reviewing other studies on the relationship between pain and swearing?
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What is the outcome of using deductive reasoning in the scientific method?
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What is the characteristic of a testable prediction in the scientific method?
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What is the primary difference between deductive and inductive reasoning?
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What is the purpose of making systematic, planned observations in the scientific method?
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What is the outcome of a hypothesis in the scientific method?
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What is the main issue with the argument '“Violent contact in football games causes concussions.” “John has a concussion.” “Therefore, John experienced violent contact in a football game.”'?
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What is the main limitation of the empirical method?
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What is the primary advantage of using the rational method?
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What is the role of hypotheses in the scientific method?
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What is the main difference between the empirical method and the scientific method?
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What is the primary purpose of Step 1 in the scientific method?
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What is the main issue with inductive reasoning?
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What is the role of variables in the scientific method?
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What is the primary purpose of Step 5 in the scientific method?
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What is the primary advantage of using the method of authority?
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What is the term for keeping the experimenter uninformed about the details of the study to reduce the influence of researcher's expectations?
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What is the characteristic of the scientific method that allows others to verify the findings?
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What is the main difference between a hypothesis and a conclusion?
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What is the outcome of the scientific method when there is a lack of agreement between the observations and the predictions?
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What is the primary reason for making observations public in the scientific method?
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What is the characteristic of the scientific method that involves structured and systematic observation?
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What is the term for the repetition of the same step-by-step process to verify the findings?
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What is the primary purpose of the scientific method?
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What is the characteristic of the scientific method that involves the avoidance of personal biases and expectations?
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What is the outcome of the scientific method when there is good agreement between the observations and the predictions?
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What is the primary characteristic that distinguishes the Method of Tenacity from other methods?
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What is the primary reason why the Method of Intuition is limited in its ability to obtain accurate information?
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What is the primary advantage of using the Method of Authority?
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What is the primary limitation of the Method of Empiricism?
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What is the primary characteristic of the Method of Tenacity that can lead to the persistence of superstitions?
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What is the primary difference between the Method of Intuition and the Method of Authority?
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What is the primary reason why experts' opinions may not always be accurate?
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What is the limitation of the rational method in determining the truth of a conclusion?
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What is the primary purpose of evaluating the source of information when using the method of authority?
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What is the primary difference between the method of authority and the rational method?
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What is the potential pitfall of accepting an expert's statement without question?
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What is the primary advantage of seeking a second opinion when using the method of authority?
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What is the primary reason why our perceptions can be drastically altered?
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What is the primary difference between the scientific method and the empirical method?
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What is the primary limitation of using the rational method?
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What is the primary purpose of evaluating the hypothesis in the scientific method?
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What is the primary characteristic of inductive reasoning?
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What is the primary disadvantage of using the method of authority?
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What is the primary reason why people tend to generalize beyond their actual observations?
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What is the primary advantage of combining different methods of acquiring knowledge?
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What is the primary limitation of the empirical method in determining the truth of a conclusion?
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What is the primary purpose of Step 2 in the scientific method?
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What is the primary goal of using operational definitions in research?
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What is a limitation of operational definitions?
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Why is it important to consult previous research when using operational definitions?
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What is an example of an indirect method of measuring a construct?
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What is the term for the process of keeping the experimenter uninformed about the details of the study to reduce the influence of researcher's expectations?
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What is a potential problem with operational definitions?
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What is the primary purpose of step 5 in the scientific method, in the context of hypothesis testing?
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What is the main characteristic of the scientific method that distinguishes it from other methods?
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What is the primary role of theories in psychological research?
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What is the primary advantage of making observations public in the scientific method?
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What is the primary disadvantage of the empirical method?
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What is the primary purpose of variables in the scientific method?
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What is the primary goal of the scientific method in relation to personal biases and expectations?
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What is the primary outcome of the scientific method when there is a lack of agreement between the observations and the predictions?
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What is the primary difference between the scientific method and the method of authority?
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What is the primary purpose of the 'Method' section in a scientific journal article?
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What is the primary purpose of reviewing other studies in the scientific method?
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What is the primary characteristic of deductive reasoning in the scientific method?
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What is the primary purpose of making a testable prediction in the scientific method?
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What is the primary difference between induction and deduction in the scientific method?
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What is the primary purpose of Step 3 in the scientific method?
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What is the primary characteristic of a hypothesis in the scientific method?
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What is the primary reason for the indirect connection between a construct and its measurement in operational definitions?
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What is the main advantage of consulting previous research when using operational definitions?
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What is the primary consequence of operational definitions leaving out important components of a construct?
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What is the primary reason for including different procedures to measure a construct in operational definitions?
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What is the primary consequence of operational definitions including extra components that are not part of the construct?
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What is the primary advantage of using multiple procedures to measure a construct in operational definitions?
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What is the primary characteristic of variables that can be measured in research?
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What is the purpose of operational definitions in research?
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What is the role of constructs in psychological theories?
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Why are tangible, concrete attributes often used in research?
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What is the relationship between external stimuli and constructs?
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Why are indirect methods of measurement used in research?
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Study Notes
Non-Scientific Approaches to Acquiring Knowledge
-
Method of Tenacity: holding on to ideas and beliefs simply because they have been accepted as facts for a long time
- Based on habit or superstition
- Problem: information acquired might not be accurate; no mechanism for correcting wrong ideas
- Examples: persistence of superstitions (lucky socks, lucky pencil)
-
Method of Intuition: accepting information as true because it "feels right"
- Relying on hunches and "instinct" to answer questions
- Uses gut feeling to make personal choices and resolve ethical and moral questions
- Part of intuition based on subtle cues from people around us
- Quick way to obtain answers, but no mechanism for separating accurate from inaccurate information
-
Method of Authority: finding answers by seeking out an authority on the subject
- Quick and easy way to obtain answers, but may not always provide accurate information
- Pitfalls: authorities can be biased, sources may be biased, and not all "experts" are experts
- To increase confidence in information: evaluate the source, evaluate the information itself, and consider a second opinion
The Rational Method
- Also known as "rationalism"
- Involves seeking answers by logical reasoning
- Begins with a set of known facts and uses logic to reach a conclusion
- Conclusion is guaranteed to be correct if premise statements are true and logic is sound
- Limitation: conclusion is not necessarily true unless both premise statements are true
The Empirical Method
- Also known as "empiricism"
- Attempts to answer questions by direct observation or experience
- Provides an easy and direct way to answer questions
- Limitations: perceptions can be altered by prior knowledge, expectations, feelings, or beliefs; can be time-consuming or dangerous
The Scientific Method
- Combines elements from other methods to produce a general technique that avoids their limitations
- Tends to be more complicated and time-consuming, but obtains better-quality answers
- Steps:
- Observe behavior or other phenomena
- Form a tentative answer or explanation (hypothesis)
- Use the hypothesis to generate a testable prediction
- Evaluate the prediction by making systematic, planned observations
- Use the observations to support, refute, or refine the original hypothesis
- 3 important principles:
- Empirical: answers are obtained by making observations
- Public: observations (data) are available for evaluation by others
- Objective: observations are structured to avoid researcher's biases and beliefs
Key Concepts
- Variables: characteristics or conditions that change, or have different values for different individuals
- Hypothesis: a statement that explains a relationship among variables
- Theory: a set of hypothetical mechanisms and intangible elements that help organize observations and predict behavior
- Constructs: intangible, abstract attributes that play important roles in psychological theories### Methods of Acquiring Knowledge
- Consulting an expert directly: relying on the assumed expertise of another person (e.g. physicians, scientists, psychologists, professors, lawyers)
- Pitfalls: biased information, lack of true expertise, and unquestioned acceptance of authority
- Evaluating the source of information:
- Is the "authority" really an expert?
- Is the information within their area of expertise?
- Is the information objective fact or subjective opinion?
- Evaluating the information itself:
- Does the information seem reasonable?
- Does it agree with other information you already know?
- If in doubt, seek a second opinion
The Rational Method
- Also known as "rationalism"
- Involves seeking answers by logical reasoning
- Begins with a set of known facts and uses logic to reach a conclusion
- Limitations: premises may not be true, and people are not good at logical reasoning
- Example: "Violent contact in football games causes concussions." "John has a concussion." "Therefore, John experienced violent contact in a football game."
The Empirical Method
- Also known as "empiricism"
- Attempts to answer questions and obtain knowledge by direct observation or experience
- Limitations: perceptions can be altered by prior knowledge, expectations, feelings, or beliefs, and may be time-consuming or dangerous
- Example: watching the sun rise and set to conclude that the sun must travel in a huge circle around the earth
The Scientific Method
- Combines different methods to avoid pitfalls
- Steps:
- Observe behavior or phenomena, begins with informal observations
- Form a tentative answer or explanation (hypothesis)
- Use the hypothesis to generate a testable prediction
- Evaluate the prediction by making systematic, planned observations
- Use the observations to support, refute, or refine the original hypothesis
Observations and Hypotheses
- Inductive reasoning: reaching a general conclusion based on a few specific examples
- Identifying factors (variables) associated with the observation
- Hypothesis: a statement that explains a relationship among variables
- Not a final answer, but a proposal to be tested and critically evaluated
Operational Definitions
- Defining and measuring variables using indirect methods
- Example: IQ test measures external behavior, which is used as a definition and measurement of intelligence
- Limitations: may not capture the entire construct, and may include extra components that are not part of the construct
- Importance of using established operational definitions to ensure comparability of results
Variables and Constructs
- Variables: characteristics or conditions that change or have different values for different individuals
- Constructs: hypothetical mechanisms and intangible elements that influence behavior
- Theories: help organize observations and explain behavior
- Examples: motivation, self-esteem, and rewards → motivation → performance
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Description
Test your knowledge of the scientific method and its limitations, as well as non-scientific approaches such as the method of tenacity, method of intuition, and more. Learn how to produce better-quality answers with higher confidence levels. Evaluate the differences between rational and empirical methods.