Understanding the Medieval World

Medieval World

• Refers to the period between the Ancient and Modern Periods.
• An important stage in human societal evolution.
• The achievements form steps toward the Modern Period.
• Europeans in the 17th century coined the term 'Middle Ages'.
• Europeans viewed it as a long, dark interruption between the Classical Period and their Modern Age.
• It was a period of flowering for the Islamic world.
• It was an age of synthesis in India, combining old and new political, economic, and social systems.
• Became the hallmark for the Medieval Period of India because of cultural co-existence and acceptance.
• In Europe, material and cultural accomplishments were low in the early Medieval Period.
• Europeans improved their standard of living.
• New institutions of learning and new modes of thought were developed.
• High standards in literature and art were reached.
• New ideas not only transformed Europe but also impacted the rest of the world.

Decline of the Roman Empire

• The Roman Empire divided into Western and Eastern territories.
• Western empire had its capital in Rome.
• Eastern empire had its capital in Constantinople.
• Emperor Constantine established Constantinople in 330 AD in the ancient Greek city of Byzantine.
• The Roman Empire in the east continued for about a thousand years after the collapse in the west.
• The Eastern Roman Empire or the Byzantine Empire was an Eastern Civilization of Greek-speaking people.
• They reached high economic and cultural standards while Western Europe was backward.
• The Roman Empire in the west ended following attacks by Germanic tribes like the Goths, Vandals, and Franks.
• In 476 AD, invaders overthrew the Roman Emperor and established separate successor states.
• Romans and Germanic societies merged, resulting in systems different from Roman or Germanic ones.
• Institutions included systems that were different to either Roman or Germanic ones.
• Feudalism was the most important institution.
• Feudalism transformed the existing social, political and economic organizations.

Feudalism: Political, Military and Socio-Economic Aspects

• Successor states of the Germanic managed to restore political stability.
• One state created an empire under Charlemagne that collapsed mid-9th century due to invasions.
• Political chaos led to feudalism, a hierarchical organization of political sovereignty.
• King was on top.
• Dukes and Earls, were the big lords.
• Barons, were the lesser lords.
• Knights, were the lowest category of lords.
• Lords derived authority from and owned loyalty to the lord above them.
• Vassals of their lord became the pattern of relationship between the lords.
• Lords were powerful in their local areas.
• Political power was widely dispersed, which differs from the Roman Empire.
• Unique personal nature of the bond linked lord and vassal.
• An elaborate ceremony established it to serve the lord forever.
• Simultaneously, he also accepted the protection of the lord.
• Protection was important due to political instability.
• Vassals were bound to perform services, mainly military service.
• 'Fief' or 'fiefdom' was grant of land given by the lord for sustenance.
• Lords mobilized armed supporters in their areas with personal loyalty.
• They provided military support to the lord.
• With military power, lords became masters of their own area.
• Lords could not be challenged by the state.
• Just as the lords sought protection, so did the peasants,
• Some peasants had no land, implements, or seeds.
• Some free peasants turned to the lords for protection.
• Dependent peasants of Medieval Europe became serfs and were tied to the soil.
• The serfs were subject to the authority of the lord and became serfs.
• Wealth generation was through their exploitation.
• The entire landed estate controlled by a feudal lord was the manor consisting of:
• Land for use of the lord.
• Arable land granted to peasants.
• Meadowlands used by everyone for livestock grazing.
• Serfs occupied these parcels or holdings were tenants of the lord of the manor.
• The lord got labor services as rent by the peasants.
• Serfs worked on the lands of the lords for a certain number of days a week.
• They put in extra labor during agricultural seasons, such as plowing, harvesting, or threshing.
• Unpaid labor services also included construction and cutting firewood.
• Labor services were gradually substituted by money in the later phase of feudalism.
• Serfs also paid dues or taxes in kind from their share of produce.
• The lords introduced these when they wanted resources.
• The lord extracted from the peasants indirectly.
• The manor was a self-sufficient economic unit.
• Almost all articles of use were produced and consumed.
• It included facilities like smithies, flour mills, ovens, wine presses, and workshops.
• All these were owned by the lord.
• Peasants were forced to use the facilities, and the lord fixed the charges based on will.

Changes in Feudal Economy: Prosperity and Crisis in Medieval Europe

• Feudalism was not static and underwent prosperity and crisis.
• Low level of economic life marked the few centuries after the collapse of the Roman Empire.
• There was political change and turmoil.
• Decline in town life, trade, and monetary exchange.
• Cities survived from Roman days had no economic role.
• Roads deteriorated.
• Barter replaced the use of money.
• Economy was based mostly entirely on agriculture and very limited local trade.
• The self-sufficient landed estate or the feudal manor was the main economic unit.
• Technology in agriculture was backward, resulting in low yields.
• The conditions lasted till about the 10th-century AD.
• After the 10th century, the feudal system of production saw significant changes.
• There was an expansion in agricultural fields, and agricultural productivity increased.
• A new and heavier plough with wheels was introduced.
• It was drawn by a team of oxen.
• Farmers effectively cultivated the heavy and sticky soil of Northern Europe.
• The Three Field System was introduced in which 1/3rd of the land was left fallow.
• 1/3rd was used for cultivating an autumn crop
• 1/3rd for a spring crop.
• By leaving only a third of the land fallow, the cropped area increased.
• The new plough and the Three Field System in agricultural techniques helped increase yield..
• It also witnessed the revival of trade and the growth of town life.
• Trade ranged from local markets to long-distance trade.
• There transport improvement occurred as it helped road transport.
• River and sea routes were also used.
• Revival in trade required new payment since there was inadequate barter.
• Money economy made significant advances.
• It led to prosperity in the surrounding rural areas.
• Cloth making became an important town industry.
• Guilds became important.
• Medieval towns continued to grow and became a factor in the breakdown of feudal relations.
• The tendency towards growth reached its limits by the end of the 12th century.
• Significant changes happened in the feudal system by the 13th century.
• The period of economic growth and prosperity boosted the population.
• There was an increase in labor for the landlords.
• Landlords no longer needed to retain their demesnes due to the abundant labor, making labor-saving technology find few investors.
• As demesne lands were gone, the need to extract labor went.
• Reduced services and technological stagnation in agriculture decreased agricultural yield.
• Food shortage and famine occurred as epidemics of plague broke out.
• This resulted in an overall agriculture decline, with growth in money economy, urban expansion, and trade.
• By around 1450, the economy started moving towards recovery.
• The portion of the landed estate of the lord managed directly by him was called the DEMESNE.
• Given the low economic life before the 10th century.
• Learning remained a privilege of the few.
• The masses received no formal education.
• Latin language was the language of learning.
• Memorization of the priestly class consisted Education.
• All learning was dominated by blind faith,
• Attempt at revival, education did not result in creativity.
• The priestly and monastic orders re-copied and preserved Roman literature.
• The revival of learning began in the 11th and 12th centuries.
• There was little production in literature due to low literacy, similar case with artistic productions.
• Manuscript illustrations developed and overall cultural attainment was minimal.
• European Civilization was backward in comparison to the Byzantine and Islamic world.
• The prosperity and relative peace of the period from the 10th century brought cultural change.
• There was an increase in literacy with primary education and universities opening.
• Knowledge spread from the Arab Civilisation.
• Progress in knowledge and thought in Europe.
• It was an important step towards intellectual flowering took place during the Modern Period.

Arab Civilization During The Medieval Period

• Most Arabs were Bedouins wandering camel herdsmen in this desert peninsula.
• Their livelihood was pastoralism and produce of the desert oases, such as dates.
• In the 6th century, trade was sluggish with minimal urban development,
• Ongoing war between Roman and Persian empires led shift in long distance trade routes for caravans.
• Became safer transit route resulting in growth of towns.
• The most prominent was Mecca which lay on the junction of major trade routes.
• Mecca's position derived from its local religious.
• The Kabah controlled a pilgrimage shrine, serving at that time as a center of worship for diverse Arabian clans and tribes.
• The Quraysh tribe played a powerful role in the economic life of Mecca.
• It owed its emergence to the birth of Islam.
• Muhammad who spread Islam was born in Mecca in 570 AD.
• He orphaned early in life raised by his uncle.
• He grew to be a trader, then married a rich widow, Khadija.
• Polytheism or belief in many Gods was replaced by strict monotheism (belief in one God called 'Islam').
• Muhammad was hailed as a 'Prophet'.
• He gained few converts except for his wife Khadija in the early stages,
• Representatives of Yathrib (Medina) invited Muhammad to resolve local rivalries.
• Muhammad migrated in 622 AD to that town, which followed his converts.
• The migration year was called Hijrah, and the town was renamed as Medina.
• He then organized converts into a political and religious community.
• Muhammad and his followers conducted raids on caravans of the Quraysh.
• In 630 AD, he entered Mecca after defeating the Quraysh.
• The Quraysh submitted to the faith, making the Kabah the main shrine of Islam.
• Other tribes throughout Arabia accepted.
• 'Islam' means submission and adherence to faith.
• The followers are known as Muslims.
• There is only one God.
• Muhammad is believed to be the last prophet of God.
• Muslims also recognize the Jewish and Christian prophets.
• Muslims believe in the Day of Judgment.
• Quran is the holy book, compiling revelations that Muhammad received.
• Dedication to morality and compassion
• Adherence to religious observances like prayer
• Charity
• Pilgrimage to Mecca.
• Recitation from the Quran.
• Apart from the Quran, the Sunna or Practices of the Prophet and Hadis or Sayings of the Prophet set norms.
• There are no intermediaries between the individual and God.
• Religious scholars have authority to comment on religious laws.
• Islam preaches equality.
• Islam has similarities in doctrine and beliefs with Judaism and Christianity.

Society and Culture

• Arab Philosophy was based on the study of Greek thought and cultivated by philosophers who believed in rationality.
• Philosophers distinguished themselves in the study of Natural Sciences
• They practiced Astrology and Medicine based on accurate astronomical observation.
• Studied the medical writings of the Greeks and went beyond that.
• Ibn Sina discovered the infectious nature of tuberculosis.
• Ibn Sina described several types of nervous ailments.
• Al-Razi, discovered the difference between measles and smallpox.
• Other Arabic diagnosed cancer of the stomach and prescribed antidotes for poisoning.
• They developed hospitals.
• 34 hospitals were located in important cities of Persia, Syria, and Egypt on remarkably modern lines.
• Arabs excelled in Optics, Chemistry, and Mathematics.
• Physicists founded Science of Optics and drew conclusions regarding the velocity, transmission, and refraction of light.
• They discovered carbonate of soda, alum, saltpeter, nitric and sulphuric acids.
• The described the chemical distillation, filtration and sublimation processes.
• In mathematics, greatest accomplishment was to bring together the Geometry of the Greeks and the Number System of the Indians.
• In fact, use of the Indian Number System spread widely which the west called them 'Arabic Numerals'.
• With a synthesis were able to make Trigonometry progress.
• Numerals are now used all over the world.

Medieval Indian Civilization

• 8th and 10th centuries, several kingdoms struggled for supremacy.
• The three major kingdoms in Northern India include:
• Palas
• Pratiharas
• Rashtrakutas
• Smaller kingdoms were set up by the:
• Rajput Dynasties of the Chauhans
• Paramaras
• Gahadavalas
• The Chola Dynasty in the South controlled the country.
• Political fragmentation was favorable for invaders like Mahmud of Ghazni.
• After several conquests in Asia, Mahmud turned toward India.
• Began in 1000 AD, made invasions over:
• Punjab
• Kashmir
• Eastern Rajasthan
• Mahmud was not interested in establishing rule over this country.

Political Events

• Mahmud's invasions were followed by coming Turks who established their rule over Northern India by the 13th century.
• Turkish rulers were sultans and ruled from Delhi.
• Their empire is then called the Delhi Sultanate.
• Its most powerful dynasties were the Khaljis and the Tughluqs.
• Rulers faced a threat of invasions from the Mongols.
• The Vijayanagar and Bahmani kingdoms were competing.
• Coming of Mughals in the early 16th-century marked with fusion of traditions, could be seen: Social life Religious practices and beliefs Various arts
• Based On mutual acceptance and harmonious coexistence.
• Parallel centralized such as Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire, regional independent dynastic flourished.
• Ilyas Shahi
• Husain Shahi Dynasties of Bengal
• Ahoms of Assam
• Gajapati Dynasty of Odisha
• Dynasties of Mewar and Marwar in Rajasthan
• Sharqi Dynasty of Jaunpur
• Independent dynasties witnessed growth of languages, literature, and cultures.
• Sovereignty and governance are new ideas Turks and Mughals.
• Kingship had no place in the Islamic polity, which based on on the communities notion.
• Initially, power was shared with the Sultan and Turkish chiefs.
• the Sultan assumed absolute power in all governance matters.
• Mughals downsize nobility.
• Prestige of the king was established and power at an unprecedented level.
• Emperor came to be regarded India emperors.
• the Dehli military commanders got areas know as iqtas transferables
• assignees ownership of land
• however were give only the territories but ownership was not given out

Political Institutions

• Commander used by the assignees to meet requirements as well as the maintenance of the troops.
• He would be expected to provide military support with troops whenever call upon
• structure was undisturbed village level continued.
• Mughal the networks much deeper village
• performed to Civil military was which bureau were contingent under commands
• were the assignments called Jagirs
• Jagirs not system system
• In the system as system of revenue, land was measured fixing land according
• Land fertility income

Economy

• Delhi Delhi based on surplus in forms revenues also
• empire the income market payment this increased states cultivation pioneered relief
• Trade was saw centers which trade
• Ahmadabad Bombay markets stability made Coastal classes standards merchants
• Bills of payment
• Facilitation increased movements country easy

Cultural and Religious Life

• Traditions were
• Movement oneness to the with life. devotion rather system saints in
• In the Nanka followering Sikhism traditions