Questions and Answers
What is the 'code of the street'?
A set of informal rules that govern street life, emerging where police influence ends, emphasizing respect, manhood, and fearlessness.
What is street violence a result of according to Anderson's theory?
A result of despair and seclusion from the majority White society, affirmed by negative views leading to an oppositional culture.
What does Potter say about the 'buzzword status' of intersectionality?
'In these cases, the grounding that intersectionality was to provide in order to make sense of the data was somehow circumvented...'
What is Rios's jungle-book trope?
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What are the 4 components of intersectional criminology?
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What does Potter mean by braided?
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What does PAR stand for and what is it?
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What 3 goals does Potter conclude her book was able to accomplish?
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What are the components of Sue's (2010) complex manifestation of racism?
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What are the three forms of racial microaggressions according to Sue's (2007)?
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What does class equal according to Leonard (2015)?
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Sex is determined through the application of socially agreed upon biological criteria for classifying persons as ______ or ______.
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What are Merton's (1972) insiders?
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What is Chauvinism?
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What is the difference between prejudice and stereotypes?
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According to Zuberi, how are race and ethnicity confounded?
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What are the three stages in becoming a racist activist according to Blee's study?
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What are the three main characteristics people organize impressions/stereotypes around?
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What are the important distinctions when comparing racism and sexism?
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What is oppression as described by Yamoto (1997)?
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Name the four types of racism defined by Yamoto.
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What are the two components of the Context and Effects of Discrimination?
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What are the categories of the Walker et al. Discrimination-Disparity Continuum?
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Legal variables are considered legitimate bases for decisions in the criminal legal system.
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Race is biologically constructed.
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Who were the subjects studied in Hagan & Foster's (2006) research?
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According to Leonard (2015), what are the two ways that crime is defined?
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What are Leonard's (2015) first and second dichotomies?
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What are the four types of crimes that are often ignored by the media, according to Leonard (2015)?
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What are the two general categories against whom white-collar crime charges can be brought?
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What are the other names for 'state crimes'?
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The TRIAD framework distinguishes between legal and ______ variables in the criminal legal system.
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What are the three persistent problems in corporate crimes against women?
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What are the sexist and racist assumptions in classical theories regarding criminal behavior?
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Who believed that women committed equal numbers of crime as men but were better at hiding crimes?
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What did Otto Pollak state about women in his book 'Behind the Mask'?
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What does Strain Theory suggest about crime and the American Dream?
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What is the Opportunity Theory about?
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What does General Strain Theory add to Strain Theory?
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What is Labeling Theory concerned with?
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What was the women's liberation/emancipation hypothesis developed in the 1970s?
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What are the two differences between Adler and Simon regarding the women's liberation hypothesis?
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What is Potter's definition of intersectionality?
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What is intersectional criminology?
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What is a white racial frame?
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Who is DuBois?
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What is white criminology?
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What is the second phase of feminist criminology?
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What does Potter say about the term 'non-white'?
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What is colorism?
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What are the three intersectional trends Potter says should be considered for teenage sex and pregnancy rates?
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What are the two roots of U.S. intersectionality?
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What is color blind feminism?
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How have women of color appropriated the term 'feminism'?
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What is the significance of Daniel Moynihan's 1965 report on The Negro Family?
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What was the Young Lords Party?
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What were the significant events in feminism from the 1980s and since?
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What is the third wave of feminism?
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What does Potter say about double jeopardy?
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What does cumulative disadvantage mean?
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What does Potter report about black male exceptionalism?
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What is criminalblackman?
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What are common and exotic crimes?
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What does Potter say about self-control and opportunity in crime?
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What explains gender differences in youth offenses according to Gottfredson and Hirschi?
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What are 'cumulative disadvantage,' 'human agency,' and 'situated choice'?
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What were Giordano's dissimilar findings related to race and gender?
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How does Potter critique Giordano's approach to identity formation?
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What does Potter mean by reducing criminology?
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What three things need to be understood for an intersectional analysis of violence against women?
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What significance do situated survival strategies have in Potter's research?
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What does Potter report about the strong Black woman narrative?
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How does Potter define resistors in her research?
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What are the main tenets of Black feminist criminology?
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What is the common finding in studies of women of color immigrants who survived partner abuse?
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What were the findings on White working-class women and intimate partner abuse?
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How does race x gender impact earnings in Maher's ethnography?
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What are the three identities of intersection identified in Richie's book Arrested Justice?
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What did Richie mean by 'We won the mainstream but lost the movement'?
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What does Richie refer to as 'gender entrapment'?
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What is McCorkle's rehabilitative paternalism?
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How were neighborhoods raced in Cobbina's study of women probationers?
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What is the difference between decent and street?
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Study Notes
Complex Manifestation of Racism (Sue, 2010)
- Individual racism involves intentional acts meant to harm or discriminate against people of color.
- Institutional racism refers to practices within organizations and systems that subordinate people of color while favoring others.
- Cultural racism emphasizes the superiority of one group's culture over another, imposing cultural standards on marginalized groups.
Racial Microaggressions (Sue, 2007)
- Defined as daily verbal, behavioral, and environmental insults towards people of color, both intentional and unintentional.
- Three forms include:
- Microassaults: conscious acts of derogation or discrimination.
- Microinsults: unconscious communications that belittle a person’s racial identity.
- Microinvalidations: comments that negate a person of color's experiences or reality.
- Explicit biases are conscious beliefs, while implicit biases operate below awareness, influencing judgments and behaviors.
Class Definition (Leonard, 2015)
- Class is the distribution of income, wealth, and status.
- Wealth inequality compounds more quickly than income inequality, often transferred across generations.
Biological vs. Social Construction of Sex
- Sex classification is based on biological criteria, while gender encompasses economic, social, and cultural attributes linked to being male or female.
- The "Phall-O-Meter" exemplifies the social construction of sex by dictating gender categorization at birth.
Insiders and Outsiders (Merton, 1972)
- Insiders are members of specific groups or status, while outsiders refer to nonmembers.
Definitions of Key Terms
- Chauvinism: glorifying one's own group.
- Ethnocentric: viewing other groups as inferior and focusing on one’s own race.
- Ethnicity differs from race by encompassing cultural customs, self-perception, and shared activities based on origin.
Prejudice vs. Stereotype
- Prejudice is an antipathy directed toward out-groups based on stereotypes.
- Stereotypes are beliefs about perceived attributes of a social category.
Race and Ethnicity (Zuberi)
- Race is often conflated with ethnicity in research, both being socially constructed to reflect power dynamics.
Women in the KKK (Blee's Study)
- Three stages of becoming racist activists:
- Conversion: a significant event reshaping their worldview.
- Selective Adoption: embracing certain ideologies while rejecting others.
- Resignation: accepting and rationalizing racist beliefs as an unfortunate truth.
Impression/Stereotype Organization
- Impressions are often organized around three main characteristics: race, age, and gender.
Distinguishing Racism and Sexism
- Racism involves policies designed to discriminate, while sexism often aims to protect.
- Examining levels of integration and historical contexts reveals differences between the two.
Oppression Concepts (Yamoto, 1997)
- Oppression is systematic mistreatment of one group by another, leading to internalized oppression among marginalized groups.
- Four forms of racism include aware/blatant, aware/covert, unaware/unintentional, and unaware/self-righteous.
Components of Discrimination Context and Effects
- Two components are intention/motivation and result.
Discrimination-Disparity Continuum (Walker et al.)
- Ranges from systematic discrimination to pure justice, reflecting varying levels of discrimination across contexts and individuals.
Legal vs. Extra-Legal Variables
- Legal variables are legitimate bases for decisions in the criminal justice system related to behavior, while extra-legal variables (e.g., race, gender) are not based on individual behavior.
Social Construction of Race
- Race's biological definition based on physical features is described as socially constructed due to the lack of exclusive categories.
Study Findings (Hagan & Foster, 2006)
- Focused on secret and disputed deviance during racialized adolescence, identifying categories such as pure deviants, secret deviants, and conforming non-deviants.
Crime Definitions (Leonard, 2015)
- Crime can be socially defined and commonly understood, but it is not purely objective, universal, or unchanging.
Dichotomies in Crime (Leonard, 2015)
- First dichotomy: Street vs. Elite crime, with street crimes often highlighted in media.
- Second dichotomy: Individual vs. Structural causes of crime, emphasizing the roles of societal inequality.
Roots and Harms in Crime Labels (Leonard, 2015)
- Understanding the impact of labels in crime context informs discussions of racism, sexism, and classism.
Elite Crimes (Leonard, 2015)
- Four types often ignored:
- Corporate crimes: e.g., Bhopal disaster.
- White-collar crimes: e.g., fraud and embezzlement.
- Organized crimes: e.g., drug trafficking.
- State crimes: e.g., unjust acts by government agencies.
Charges in White-Collar Crimes
- Charges can be brought against individuals and corporations.
Overview of Major Case Studies
- Bhopal, Tuskegee, and others exemplify corporate and state crimes, often lacking media or public focus despite their impacts on marginalized communities.
Alternative Names for State Crimes
- Also referred to as governmental or political crimes.
Patterns of Corporate Misconduct
- Five patterns include denial of wrongdoing, habitual offending, prioritizing profit over safety, avoiding liability, and learned intermediary doctrine.
Persistent Problems in Corporate Crimes Against Women
- Three main issues: ignoring victims, identifying victims, and blaming victims.
Assumptions in Classical Theories
- Classical theories attribute crime to individual traits, often linking criminal behavior to identifiable biological differences based on race and gender.
Pollak's Views on Women and Crime
- Otto Pollak argued that women commit equal crimes but are better at concealing them, citing biological factors as influencing their ability to hide wrongdoing.
Strain and Subcultural Theories
- Strain Theory links class strain to crime, Opportunity Theory adds the importance of access to crime, while General Strain Theory broadens the perspective by including race and sex, along with potential childhood trauma.
Labeling Theory Components
- Explores how labels are assigned and embraced, influencing a person's self-identity and reinforcing societal prejudices, crucial for understanding racial profiling and discriminatory practices.### Women's Liberation and Crime
- Women's liberation in the 1970s linked to a rise in crimes committed by women, with wealth and status contributing to this increase.
- Freda Adler claimed a rise in women's violent crimes due to increased freedom.
- Rita Simon focused on an increase in property crimes among women as a result of liberation.
- Criticisms of their theories include selective data usage and mislabeling women’s activism as crime, with subsequent studies disproving these claims.
Intersectionality and Criminology
- Intersectionality: concept highlighting the complex interplay of coalesced identities and their influence within social hierarchies.
- Intersectional criminology incorporates these identities into criminological research, policy evaluation, and justice administration.
Racial Frames and Perspectives
- White racial frame: a collectively accepted viewpoint that favors whiteness while oppressing other racial identities.
- Black feminist theorist W.E.B. DuBois is noted for linking race, crime, and justice; first black Ph.D. from Harvard.
Feminist Criminology Developments
- Second phase of feminist criminology started in the late 1980s, moving away from one-dimensional views of women.
- Colorblind feminism disregards racial identity, asserting gender as the sole factor unifying women.
Challenges and Perceptions
- The term "non-white" continues to reinforce subordination of people of color.
- Colorism reflects intra-community evaluations of skin tone among people of color.
Health and Reproductive Aging
- Trends in teenage sex and pregnancy rates influenced by the feminization of birth control, healthcare access disparities, and quality of care differences for people of color.
Theoretical Roots
- U.S. intersectionality draws from Black feminist theory and critical race theory.
- Concepts like double jeopardy and trilogy of oppression articulate the compounded marginalization faced by Black women.
Criminal Justice and Gender Perspectives
- Black women face dual discrimination in justice systems; violent crimes receive uneven attention based on the race of perpetrators and victims.
- Criminal black man stereotype merges criminality with black male identity, impacting perceptions of victims and offenders.
Study Findings on Gender and Race in Crime
- Reports reveal disparities in desisting patterns between racial groups, with significant differences between Black and White men and women.
- Factors affecting women's criminal behavior are steeped in their upbringing, societal relationships, and structural influences.
Impact and Response to Violence
- Violence against women disproportionately affects marginalized groups; understanding necessitates examining cultural, institutional, and structural elements.
- Research emphasizes unique survival strategies employed by Black women in response to violence and social expectations.
Nuances within Communities
- Distinctions between "decent" and "street" families reveal differing engagement with mainstream values and impact on youth.
- The "code of the street" emphasizes informal rules for personal safety within communities facing systematic neglect.
Research Methodologies and Applicability
- Intersectional criminology encompasses various frameworks for understanding crime and response through the lens of identity and power structures.
- Participatory action research engages community members as integral components of the study, enhancing relevance and accuracy of findings.
Conclusion and Accomplishments
- Potter's research aims to illuminate intersectionality, explore its application in studies neglecting identity politics, and showcase exemplary intersectional research efforts.
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Description
Explore the concept of complex racism as defined by Sue (2010). This quiz focuses on the individual and institutional manifestations of racism and their impact on people of color. Assess your understanding of these critical aspects.