Understanding Socialization

Socialization

• Socialization is the social construction of a self based on interactions with others.
• George Herbert Mead stated the self is composed of the "I" and the “me”.
• Self develops as a child through a four-stage process:
  • Preparatory stage: pure imitation without sense of self
  • Play stage: recognize that there is a self tied to a set of actions
  • Game stage: recognize that multiple selves work together to perform a social interaction
  • Development of the generalized other: recognize that selves are judged by others against a socially constructed expectation
• When the generalized other is developed, the I and the me are also developed.
• Lawrence Kohlberg developed a theory of moral development with three stages:
  • Preconventional: no recognition of why things are good or bad
  • Conventional: recognition of what to do and what not to do
  • Postconventional: recognize morality as a broader concept across society
• Societies cannot continue without socialization.
• People cannot construct themselves without the use of language.
• Both nature and nurture determine our selves.
• Epigenetics: certain genetic traits may predispose people to certain self-constructions and branches of self-development.
  • Social surroundings can change the expression of those genes.
  • An epigenetic view of heart disease includes family history, exposure to stress, and cortisol levels.

Agents of Socialization

• Agents of socialization are the social forces that give opportunities to engage in socialization.
• Family is the first agent of socialization.
• Socialization from family to family greatly varies.
• Example: childrearing
  • Parents may take a very concerted/involved role (concerted cultivation).
  • Parents may take a more hands-off developmental approach (accomplishment of natural growth), based on free time/income.
• Peer groups are important agents for three reasons:
  • They offer the chance to develop one's self outside of family influence.
  • They offer interactions not acceptable within family structure.
  • They expose one to other points of view outside of the family structure.
• Cliques are different peer groups in schools that value different things.
• Institutions also act as agents of socialization.
  • Schools are especially critical agents of socialization for children.
  • Schools teach manifest functions like language skills, historical knowledge, mathematical ability.
  • Schools carry latent functions for functioning in society like organizational skills, teamwork, punishment.
  • Hidden curriculum: interactions in school form blueprints for understanding role in society.
• Workplaces work differently as agents of socialization:
  • They assume people are already socialized to “common sense.”
  • Expectation for workplace to facilitate socialization.
  • Without workplace socialization, workers will not succeed.
  • Workplaces vary significantly on what is acceptable behavior.
• Religion has unique components as an agent of socialization:
  • Includes performative (attending sessions, conducting events) and informative (scripture, sermons) aspects of socialization.
  • Differing religions/sects carry differing aspects of socialization.
  • Varying levels of religious observance creates varying effects of socialization.
  • Religion can be compulsory or completely optional, depends on society and culture.
• Media is a major agent of socialization and is constantly around.
  • It can have huge negative effects on social norms and expectations.
  • Society must hold the media accountable for those negative effects.
• Socialization is a constant process throughout lives.
• Resocialization: stripping away old socializations to build new ones.
  • Typically occurs in total institutions, where people are completely cut off from wider society.

Groups and Socialization

• Group: A collective of two or more people who share a common identity and who interact with one another frequently.
• Groups are different from crowds and categories.
  • Crowds: same location but do not share an identity and do not interact with one another frequently.
  • Categories: share a similar characteristic but are not connected in any other way.
• Crowds and categories can still spawn groups.
• CH Cooley identified two types of groups
  • Primary group: Centered around an expressive function with emotional needs (usually small, very long-term - family/close friends/romantic partners).
  • Secondary group: Centered around an instrumental function with goals or tasks (the relationship is secondary to the task/goal at hand).
  • Groups can shift over time; secondary groups may become close-knit and form emotional bonds that become more important.
• William Sumner identified in-groups and out-groups:
  • In-group: the group one feels they belong to.
  • Out-group: the group one feels they do not belong to.
  • In-groups/out-groups can form within groups, even though the broader group may not recognize them.
• Reference group: provides a yardstick for measuring personal socialization process.
  • People may adapt to others' behaviors.
• Leadership in small groups involves three types:
  • Democratic leader: encourages building consensus on decisions.
  • Laissez-faire leader: very “hands-off”; does not provide much structure to group decisions and lets members make decisions freely.
  • Authoritarian leader: makes all the decisions without member input.
• Conformity: how much a person complies to group norms/expectations.
• Group conformity process:
  • Enter the group as a new member.
  • Recognize norms and expectations through direct or indirect forms of socialization.
  • Inherit the norms/expectations and conform accordingly.
• Degree to which conformity is valued varies significantly by group and society's culture surrounding expectations of conformity.
• Individualist culture: individualism is highly valued; lack of conformity is often praised.
• Collectivist culture: individualism is seen as negative; non-conformity is subject to pressures to conform.
• Western societies are typically considered individualist; Eastern societies are typically considered collectivist.

Cultures

• Cultures impact how people think about behaviors in group tasks.
• Self-serving bias is prominent in individualist cultures:
  • Successful group task: attribute success to themselves.
  • Unsuccessful group task: attribute failure to other group members.
• Self-effacing bias is prominent in collectivist cultures:
  • Successful group task: attribute success to other group members.
  • Unsuccessful group task: attribute failure to themselves.
• Formal organizations: codified groups and social structures involve three types:
  • Normative/voluntary: based upon a shared interest of its members; voluntary to join.
    • It provides little or no actual benefits (e.g., money) but provides intangible benefits (e.g., feels rewarding).
    • It develops a strong sense of connectedness between its members.
  • Coercive: based on requirement to join; benefit is some form of resocialization
    • It does not develop any connectedness between its members.
  • Utilitarian: based upon providing a tangible benefit (e.g., education or money).
    • It is not forced to join, but there are drawbacks to not joining and provides some sort of connectedness between its members.
• Max Weber said bureaucracies are an ideal type for formal organizations
  • Four components in ideal type for bureaucracies:
    • Hierarchy of authority: regimented chain of command.
    • Clear division of labor: each person has a very specific job with a specific set of responsibilities.
    • Explicit rules: rules are formally written out and standardized for everyone within the organization.
    • Impersonality: decisions and situations are regimented, specific, and documentable rationales for the actions.

Bureaucracies

• Bureaucracies often take the form of meritocracy: performance and maintaining one's membership is based upon documentable performance and skills.
• Bureaucracies are usually considered unhelpful:
  • They're very slow to make changes.
  • They're nearly impossible to stop.
  • They can be subject to significant bias.

Socialogical Concepts Related to Baby Names

• Baby names' popularity is greatly affected by sociological concepts.
• People want to be distinct, yet they also want to imitate what they like.
• People are inspired by social artifacts around them.
• People avoid names when they become associated with something negative.

Technology and Media

• Digital divide: inequality in opportunities to access digital technology
  • Quantified/discussed in terms of race, class, and geographic location.
  • Accessing digital technology is more difficult for Black and Hispanic people, people in lower economic classes, and people in rural areas.
• Two theoretical models of technological development:
  • Evolutionary model: Technology is repeatedly refined and advanced as breakthroughs allow refinements and advancements.
  • Disruptive innovation model: new technology/product has such a drastic effect on society that older technologies are rapidly dropped, leading to massive shockwaves in the industries surrounding the technology.
• Old media vs. New Media:
  • Homogenization: mass media prior to rise of new media told similar news stories and had similar content.
  • Fragmentation: new media has led to a wide array of potential media sources, leading to socialization effects based on what one views.