Understanding Science: Methods and Structure

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Questions and Answers

What does the a priori method involve?

Believing something on account of it being reasonable.

How is the a priori method described in relation to reason?

It is agreeable on a standpoint of reason.

The a priori method and authority are mutually exclusive.

False (B)

What is a key characteristic of the method of science?

No doubts arise from its practice (unlike other methods). Signup and view all the answers

What can investigation in science not prove?

Investigation cannot prove there are real things, and it cannot prove something to be true. Signup and view all the answers

What is a limitation of scientific investigation?

It cannot lead to a contrary conclusion. Signup and view all the answers

Our discussion of popper & others leads to these questions about how science works: what are they?

<ul> <li>what is the "structure" of science?</li> <li>What is science really for?</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

Our discussion of popper & others leads to these questions about whether science is different/special from other aspects of human curiosity

<ul> <li>its different/special relative to what?</li> <li>is it sciences commitment to empiricism that makes it special?</li> <li>is it sciences deployment of mathematics that makes it special?</li> <li>is it something about the social structure of science? (do scientists behave differently from non-scientists)</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

Our discussion of popper & others leads to these questions about what the relation of science is to philosophy

<ul> <li>science and philosophy are both concerned with metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics</li> <li>science and philosophy have been intertwined throughout history (called natural philosophy until modern period)</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

Our discussion of popper & others leads to these questions about what the role of science should be in society

<ul> <li>should it be privileged?</li> <li>can it have an authoritative role in a pluralist society? (scientism is when science and only science should have a seat at the table)</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

Poppers conjectures and refutations section I (1)

<ul> <li>popper sees a weakness in apparent strength; theories that resembled astrology could always be confirmed</li> <li>a theory that is "irrefutable" is NOT scientific. every genuine test of a theory is an attempt to falsify it</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

Poppers conjectures and refutations section I (1), demarcation problem

demarcation problem: when should a theory be ranked as scientific? <ul> <li>not interested in truth conditions/acceptability for a theory</li> <li>science cannot be said to use an empirical, inductive method since astrology can be said to use the same (astrology vs astronomy)</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

Poppers conjectures and refutations section II (2), the relation between science and myth

<ul> <li>myth and metaphysics become scientific when they are falsifiable</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

David Humes problem of induction

<ul> <li>impressions vs ideas</li> <li>from what impressions do our ideas originate?</li> <li>the idea that future events will be like past events (an expectation/habit which resides in our mind, not universality)</li> <li>popper says don't jump to conclusions</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

Poppers conjectures and refutations section IV (4), the problem of demarcation and its relation to the problem of induction

<ul> <li>scientific theories should answer to valid logical forms, induction cannot be rationally justified: induction is a matter of faith</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

Hume demonstrated that induction cannot be logically justified

hume was mistaken about: <ul> <li>the typical result of repetition</li> <li>the genesis of habits</li> <li>the character of "believing in a law"</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

Popper argues that because hume was mistaken and demonstrated that induction cannot be logically justified, we should

<ul> <li>obtain our knowledge in a non-inductive procedure (rationalism)</li> <li>our apparent knowledge (by repetition and induction) is just belief</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

Kants law of causality

every event is causally connected to a preceding event Signup and view all the answers

Poppers conjectures and refutations section VII (7), the difference between the dogmatic and the critical attitude

<ul> <li>the difference between the dogmatic and the critical attitude brings us to pseudo-scientific practice</li> <li>the critical attitude, the readiness to test is the scientific attitude</li> <li>scientific attitude is superimposed upon the dogmatic attitude</li> <li>there is no more rational procedure than trial and error</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

Poppers conjectures and refutations section VII (7), the critical attitude

<ul> <li>science must begin with the critical discussion of myths</li> <li>the role of the critical method and logical argument remain important to criticize theories effectively</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

Popper and the logic of confirmation and falsification

science will never know if it has arrived at the true theory of nature, rather it can only have knowledge of a history of falsified theories Signup and view all the answers

The a priori method necessarily differs from authority.

False (B) Signup and view all the answers

According to our discussion of Popper and others, what are the questions about how science works?

What is the 'structure' of science? What is science really for? Signup and view all the answers

According to our discussion of Popper and others, what question arises regarding whether science is different or special from other aspects of human curiosity?

It's different/special relative to what? Is it science's commitment to empiricism that makes it special? Is it science's deployment of mathematics that makes it special? Is it something about the social structure of science (do scientists behave differently from non-scientists)? Signup and view all the answers

According to our discussion of Popper and others, what question(s) arises regarding the relation of science to philosophy?

Science and philosophy are both concerned with metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics. Science and philosophy have been intertwined throughout history (called natural philosophy until the modern period). Signup and view all the answers

According to our discussion of Popper and others, what question(s) arises regarding the role of science should be in society?

Should it be privileged? Can it have an authoritative role in a pluralist society? (scientism is when science and only science should have a seat at the table) Signup and view all the answers

According to Popper, what is a weakness in apparent strength (section I (1))?

Theories that resembled astrology could always be confirmed. A theory that is 'irrefutable' is NOT scientific. Every genuine test of a theory is an attempt to falsify it. Signup and view all the answers

According to Popper (section I (1)), what is the demarcation problem?

When should a theory be ranked as scientific? Not interested in truth conditions/acceptability for a theory. Science cannot be said to use an empirical, inductive method since astrology can be said to use the same (astrology vs astronomy). Signup and view all the answers

According to Popper (section II (2)), how do science and myth relate?

Myth and metaphysics become scientific when they are falsifiable. Signup and view all the answers

What is David Hume's problem of induction?

Impressions vs ideas. From what impressions do our ideas originate? The idea that future events will be like past events (an expectation/habit which resides in our mind, not universality). Popper says don't jump to conclusions. Signup and view all the answers

According to Popper (section IV (4)), how does the problem of demarcation relate to the problem of induction?

Scientific theories should answer to valid logical forms, induction cannot be rationally justified: induction is a matter of faith. Signup and view all the answers

What was Hume mistaken about regarding the idea that induction cannot be logically justified?

The typical result of repetition, the genesis of habits, the character of 'believing in a law'. Signup and view all the answers

Because Hume was mistaken and demonstrated that induction cannot be logically justified, Popper argues that we should do what?

Obtain our knowledge in a non-inductive procedure (rationalism). Our apparent knowledge (by repetition and induction) is just belief. Signup and view all the answers

According to Popper (section V (5)), why is the belief that we should start science with observation "absurd"?

As observation is selective and presupposes the adoption of a frame of reference. The expectation of finding a regularity (Kant's law of causality). Signup and view all the answers

What is Kant's law of causality?

Every event is causally connected to a preceding event. Signup and view all the answers

According to Popper (section VI (6)), what is dogmatic thinking/behavior?

We stick to our expectations. The critical attitude also involves the quick adoption of a schema (a representation of a plan or theory in the form of an outline or model) of expectations. Signup and view all the answers

According to Popper (section VII (7)), how does the difference between the dogmatic and the critical attitude relate to pseudo-scientific practice?

The difference between the dogmatic and the critical attitude brings us to pseudo-scientific practice. The critical attitude, the readiness to test is the scientific attitude. Scientific attitude is superimposed upon the dogmatic attitude. There is no more rational procedure than trial and error. Signup and view all the answers

According to Popper (section VII (7)), what is the role of the critical attitude?

Science must begin with the critical discussion of myths. The role of the critical method and logical argument remain important to criticize theories effectively. Signup and view all the answers

According to Popper (section VIII (8)), what is induction?

Induction is a myth, the actual procedure of science is to operate with conjectures. Induction does not demarcate science from pseudo-science. Signup and view all the answers

According to Popper (section IX (9)), what is Hume's point about justifying a law from observation/experiment?

It is impossible to justify a law from observation/experiment. Science presupposes and uses laws everywhere, all the time. Principle of empiricism: only observation/experiment decides the acceptance/rejection of scientific statements. 'Only the falsity of a theory can be inferred from empirical evidence, and this inference is purely a deductive one' Signup and view all the answers

According to Popper, what can science know about the true theory of nature?

Science will never know if it has arrived at the true theory of nature, rather it can only have knowledge of a history of falsified theories. Signup and view all the answers

Does the a priori method necessarily differ from authority?

False (B) Signup and view all the answers

According to the discussion of Popper & others, what is the 'structure' of science?

This is one of the questions raised in the discussion. Signup and view all the answers

According to the discussion of Popper & others, what is science really for?

This is one of the questions raised in the discussion. Signup and view all the answers

According to the discussion of Popper & others, is science different/special relative to what?

This is one of the questions raised in the discussion. Signup and view all the answers

According to the discussion of Popper & others, is it science's commitment to empiricism that makes it special?

False (B) Signup and view all the answers

According to the discussion of Popper & others, is it science's deployment of mathematics that makes it special?

False (B) Signup and view all the answers

According to the discussion of Popper & others, is it something about the social structure of science (do scientists behave differently from non-scientists) that makes it special?

False (B) Signup and view all the answers

According to the discussion of Popper & others, science and philosophy are NOT both concerned with metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics

False (B) Signup and view all the answers

According to the discussion of Popper & others, science and philosophy NOT have been intertwined throughout history (called natural philosophy until modern period)

False (B) Signup and view all the answers

According to the discussion of Popper & others, should science be privileged?

False (B) Signup and view all the answers

According to the discussion of Popper & others, can science have an authoritative role in a pluralist society?

False (B) Signup and view all the answers

According to Popper, what happens with theories that resembled astrology?

Theories that resembled astrology could always be confirmed. Signup and view all the answers

According to Popper, a theory that is 'irrefutable' IS scientific.

False (B) Signup and view all the answers

According to Popper, what is the demarcation problem?

When should a theory be ranked as scientific? Signup and view all the answers

Popper is interested in truth conditions/acceptability for a theory.

False (B) Signup and view all the answers

Science cannot be said to use an empirical, inductive method since astrology can be said to use the same (astrology vs astronomy)

True (A) Signup and view all the answers

What happens, according to Popper, when myth and metaphysics become scientific?

They are falsifiable. Signup and view all the answers

According to Hume, from what impressions do our ideas originate?

Impressions vs ideas. Signup and view all the answers

According to Hume, what is one idea in our mind?

The idea that future events will be like past events (an expectation/habit which resides in our mind, not universality). Signup and view all the answers

What does Popper say about jumping to conclusions?

Don't jump to conclusions. Signup and view all the answers

According to Popper, induction can be rationally justified.

False (B) Signup and view all the answers

According to Hume, what should be obtained in a non-inductive procedure (rationalism)?

Knowledge. Signup and view all the answers

According to section V of Popper's conjectures and refutations, what is 'absurd'?

The belief that we should start science with observation. Signup and view all the answers

According to Popper, what is the 'dogmatic' way of thinking?

We stick to our expectations. Signup and view all the answers

According to Popper, what does the 'critical attitude' also involve?

The quick adoption of a schema (a representation of a plan or theory in the form of an outline or model) of expectations. Signup and view all the answers

According to Popper, what is the difference between the dogmatic and the critical attitude?

The difference between the dogmatic and the critical attitude brings us to pseudo-scientific practice. Signup and view all the answers

According to Popper, what is the definition of 'the scientific attitude'?

The critical attitude, the readiness to test. Signup and view all the answers

According to Popper, what is 'superimposed upon the dogmatic attitude'?

Scientific attitude. Signup and view all the answers

According to Popper, is there a more rational procedure than trial and error?

No. Signup and view all the answers

According to Popper, how must science begin?

With the critical discussion of myths. Signup and view all the answers

According to Popper, what remains important to criticize theories effectively?

The role of the critical method and logical argument. Signup and view all the answers

According to Popper, induction distinguishes science from pseudo-science.

False (B) Signup and view all the answers

According to Hume, what is impossible to justify from observation/experiment?

A law. Signup and view all the answers

According to Popper, science does NOT presuppose and use laws everywhere, all the time.

False (B) Signup and view all the answers

According to Popper, and the 'principle of empiricism', what decides the acceptance/rejection of scientific statements?

Only observation/experiment. Signup and view all the answers

According to Popper, what can be inferred from empirical evidence?

Only the falsity of a theory. Signup and view all the answers

According to Popper, what can science know?

Science will never know if it has arrived at the true theory of nature, rather it can only have knowledge of a history of falsified theories. Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

What does the a priori method involve?

Believing something on account of it being reasonable.

How is the a priori method described in relation to reason?

It is agreeable on a standpoint of reason.

Does the a priori method differ from authority?

It doesn't necessarily differ since what is 'agreeable to reason' rests on the authority of philosophers.