Understanding Parts of Speech

Parts of Speech

• Parts of speech classify words based on grammatical functions in a sentence.
• There are eight primary parts of speech in English.
• Nouns name people, places, things, or ideas, like "dog," "city," and "happiness".
• Pronouns replace nouns to avoid repetition; examples include "he," "she," and "they".
• Verbs express actions, occurrences, or states of being, such as "run," "is," and "think".
• Adjectives describe or modify nouns or pronouns; "happy," "blue," and "large" are examples.
• Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, indicating how, when, where, or to what extent, e.g., "quickly," "very," "here".
• Prepositions show relationships between a noun/pronoun and another word, like "in," "on," "at," and "with”.
• Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses, such as "and," "but," and "because".
• Interjections express strong emotion or surprise, often standing alone, e.g., "wow," "oh," "oops".
• Parts of speech allow meaningful sentences and communication of ideas.

Types of Nouns

• Nouns can be categorized based on characteristics and usage.
• Common nouns are general names for people, places, things, or ideas like "city", "dog", and "book".
• Proper nouns are specific names and are always capitalized; for example, "London," "Mary," and "Coca-Cola".
• Concrete nouns are perceivable through the senses (seen, touched, heard), e.g., "apple", "music", and "table".
• Abstract nouns name ideas, qualities, or states not perceived through the senses, such as "love," "freedom," and "happiness".
• Countable nouns can be counted and have singular/plural forms, for example, "cat/cats" and "book/books".
• Uncountable nouns (mass nouns) cannot be counted and lack a plural form; for example, "water," "rice," and "information".
• Collective nouns name groups of people, animals, or things, like "team", "flock", and "family".
• Compound nouns are made of two+ words, written as one word, hyphenated, or separate; e.g., "toothbrush," "mother-in-law," "ice cream".
• Possessive nouns show ownership, formed with an apostrophe and "s" ('s) or just an apostrophe (') for plural nouns.
• Gerunds are verbs ending in "-ing" that function as nouns, as in "Swimming is fun".

Types of Pronouns

• Pronouns replace nouns to avoid repetition and clarify sentences to serve specific functions.
• Personal pronouns refer to specific people/things and change form based on person, number, gender, and case, such I, you, he, she, it, we, they.
• Possessive pronouns show ownership examples include mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, and theirs.
• Reflexive pronouns refer back to the subject, indicating the subject acts on itself like myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves and themselves.
• Intensive pronouns emphasize a preceding noun or pronoun with the same form as reflexive pronouns.
• Demonstrative pronouns point to specific things or groups of things, like "this," "that," "these," and "those".
• Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions, such as "who," "whom," "whose," "which," and "what".
• Relative pronouns introduce relative clauses, providing extra information about a noun, such as "who", "whom", "whose", "which", and "that".
• Indefinite pronouns refer to nonspecific people/things like all, another, any, anybody, anyone, anything, each, everybody, everyone, everything etc.
• Reciprocal pronouns indicate a mutual relationship between two or more people or things such as each other, one another etc.
• Understanding pronoun types results in clear, grammatically correct sentences.

Subject and Object Pronouns

• Subject and object pronouns are personal pronouns differing by role in a sentence.
• Subject pronouns act as the subject, performing the action, and replaces nouns performing actions, like "I," "you," "he," "she," "it," "we," and "they".
• Phrases like "She is going to the store" and "They are playing soccer" use subject pronouns.
• Object pronouns act as the object, receiving the action, replace nouns affected by the action like me, you, him, her, it, us and them.
• Phrases like "Sarah called me yesterday" or "We invited them to the party" use object pronouns.
• Subject pronouns perform actions and appear before the verb, while object pronouns receive the action and appear after/ with prepositions.
• For correct usage, when unsure about to which pronoun to use, removing the other person/thing helps determine the correct pronoun.

Subject and Object Complements

• Subject and object complements provide additional information about subject or object.
• Subject complements follow a linking verb and describe/rename the subject, with linking verbs being be, become, seem, appear, feel, look, sound, taste, smell, etc.
• Subject complements can be predicate nominatives (nouns/pronouns renaming the subject) or predicate adjectives (describing the subject).
• Object complements modify or rename the direct object and is used with transitive verbs like make, consider, find, elect, name, call, paint, think, etc.
• Object complements can be nouns (renaming the direct object) or adjectives (describing the direct object).*
• The subject complement follows a linking verb and describes/renames the subject.
• The object complement follows a direct object and describes/renames it.

Grammatical Functions and Syntactic Roles

• A direct object is a noun, pronoun, or phrase receiving the action of a transitive verb and answers "What?" or "Whom?" after the verb.
• An indirect object receives the direct object or benefits from the action, answering "To/For whom?" or "To/For what?", and comes before the direct object.
• A subject complement follows a linking verb, describing or renaming the subject; it can be a predicate nominative (noun/pronoun) or a predicate adjective.
• An object complement describes or renames a direct object, being a noun or an adjective.
• The predicate uses a linking verb to connect the subject to further information.
• An appositive renames or explains another noun it is near to.
• A modifier qualifies any noun in the sentence, such as “The red car is fast." with "red" modifying car.
• A Prepositional Phrase creates relationships with nouns that act as adjectives or adverbs.
• An adverbial modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb by answering how, when, where or why: "She left early"

Articles

• Articles determine nouns, they're not adjectives, but change nouns instead
• There are only three articles in the English Language: a, an the
• A and an indefinite articles
• The is the definite article

Noun Adjunct

• Noun adjuncts when a noun is beside another noun (in order to modify the noun).
• E.g. chicken soup -- Chicken is the noun adjunct.

Predicative Adjectives

• . Predicative adjectives are adjectives within the predicate of sentences that describes the subject, following linking verbs

Attributive Adjectives

• Attributive adjectives are adjectives immediately before the noun

Comparison of Adjectives

• Adjectives are great for describing quantities, numbers, etc.
• Positive Degree (base form)
• Comparative Degree (comparing two things)
• Superlative Degree (comparing three or more things)
• Syllable Count helps dictate which forms to use.

Coorindate Adjectives

• Coordinate adjectives: are adjectives that modifiy the same noun in different ways.
• Test this by:
• Swapping the order to see if its the same.
• By inserting "and" in between the workds
• When listing off adjectives, there is an order of them!

Order of Adjectives

• Opinion
• Size
• Shape
• Color
• Origin
• Material
• Purpose

Appositives

• Appositives are noun phrases for pronouns that help rename or explain another noun
• These can be essential or restrictive
• If the appositive is non-restrictive commas must be used

Compound Adjectives

• Are adjectives made up of two+ words, like part-time, or well-written

Participial Adjectives

• Adjecives made up of verbs with endings of -ing or -ed to create emotional feelings.
• Ends with -ing for something exciting, amazing etc
• Ends with -ed for a feeling, bored etc

Proper and Nominal Adjectives

• Proper are typically derived from proper nouns and must be capitalized.
• Nominal, adjectives are function of nouns, reference to groups of people

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

• Transitive verbs require and DIRECT OBJECT
• Intransitive verbs do NOT required a direct object
• Ditransitive verbs verbs require and DIRECT OBJECT and INDIRECT OBJECT
• Resultative verbs describe actions + resulting state of subject.

Verb Moods

• Indicative Mood implies stating opinions, facts or questions, is that standard.
• Imparitive Mood are commands and intstructions.
• Interrogative Mood asks questions.
• Conditional Mood is for hypothetical situations.
• Subjunctive Mood expresses demands, suggestions
• The basic verb tenses are for the mood.

Verb Tenses

• Present tenses describes regular time
• Past Tense describes and actions already preformed.
• Future tense is used for time upcoming.
• Each tense must be simple, continuous, perfect/ perfectly continuous forms to express actions of time.

Subject Verb Agreement

• Singular gets singular, plural gets plural
• However there are exceptions and rules
• Joined by "And" uses 2 subjects in the plural sense
• There or There - are exceptions
• Colllective and title names use plurals